Topic 5 - Religion in a Global Context Flashcards
Traditional vs. Fundamentalism:
Traditional religion is different from fundamentalism. Traditional religion is the usual way of practicing a faith, while fundamentalism is a more strict and intense version that comes up when traditional beliefs are challenged by modern changes, like globalization.
6 characteristics of fundamentalism
- An authoritative sacred text
- An ‘us and them’ mentality
- Aggressive reaction
- Use of modern technology
- Patriarchy
- Conspiracy theories
An authoritative sacred text
For Christian fundamentalists every word of the Bible is literally true, its truths are valid for all eternity, and it contains the answers to all life’s important questions, from politics to family life. The text is inerrant (without error) and not open to questioning.
Thus for example, Christian fundamentalism requires belief in the Virgin Birth of Christ, his divinity, his bodily resurrection from the dead and his imminent Second Coming, all of which are described in the Bible. Only those who accept these as historical facts are true Christians. Fundamentalists are intolerant of all other views and refuse to engage in rational argument with them.
However, as Aldridge (2013) notes, no text speaks for itself; it has to be interpreted, so in reality what fundamentalists hold to be true is not the text itself, but their interpretation of its meaning. They interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts and prophecies about the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, symbolism or metaphor.
An ‘us and them’ mentality
Fundamentalists separate establish islands of certainty against what they see as social and cultural chaos. They might see the world as a battle between their beliefs and others who don’t agree.
Aggressive reaction
Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat to their beliefs and values, and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm. Authoritative leaders such as clergy or elders who interpret the sacred text are important in giving direction to the reactions.
Use of modern technology
Although fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism, permissiveness and promiscuity, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aims- from computers and the internet to televangelism and military weaponry.
Patriarchy
Hawley (1994) notes that fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive powers, and their social and economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree.
Prophecy
Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe that the ‘last days’ will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven with the faithful living, before the seven-year rule of the Antichrist and ultimately the final defeat of Satan in the War of Armageddon.
Conspiracy theories
Fundamentalists are often attracted to conspiracy theories: the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces and organisations are in control of human destiny. According to Aldridge (2013), some extreme Christian and Islamic fundamentalists hold anti-Semitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to secure world domination.
Davie (2013) on fundamentalists and modernity
As Davie (2013) argues, fundamentalism occurs where those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it. In this sense, ‘fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity, in so far as they are born out of the clash between modernity and traditional cultures’.
According to Giddens (1999), fundamentalism is a response to globalization. Explain this.
his means that as the world becomes more connected and changes, some people become more strict in their traditional beliefs. They do this because they feel like globalization is making their old ways of thinking about families, gender, and sexuality go away.
Late Modern Society: Nowadays, people have a lot of choices to make, and the future seems uncertain and risky. In this kind of society, fundamentalism becomes attractive because it offers clear and definite answers in a world full of uncertainty.
Promise of Certainty: Fundamentalism is appealing because it gives people solid and unwavering beliefs. This feels comforting in a world where everything seems uncertain. It’s like a retreat to a place where faith-based answers seem more secure than dealing with the risks and uncertainties of the fast-changing world. So, in simple terms, fundamentalism happens when people feel like their traditional beliefs are threatened by the modern world. They turn to strict beliefs as a way to have clear answers in an uncertain globalized world, and this can be seen in various religions.
Cosmopolitanism define it
Cosmopolitanism is tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas, constantly reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new information (which Giddens calls ‘reflexive’ thinking).
Giddens contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism
Giddens contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism - a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with today’s globalising world. Cosmopolitanism is tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas, constantly reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new information (which Giddens calls ‘reflexive’ thinking). It requires people to justify their views by the use of rational arguments and evidence rather than by appealing to sacred texts. One’s lifestyle is seen as a personal choice rather than something prescribed by an external religious or other authority. Cosmopolitan religion and spirituality emphasises the pursuit of personal meaning and self-improvement rather than submission to authority. This is very similar to Hervieu-Léger’s ‘pilgrims’ who explore New Age spirituality.
Zygmunt Bauman (1992) sees fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity
Postmodern society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk, undermining the old certainties about how to live that were grounded in tradition. In this situation, while some embrace the new freedom, others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty.
Similarly, Manuel Castells (2010) distinguishes between two responses to postmodernity:
- Resistance identity - a defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities.
- Project identity- the response of those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements such as feminism and environmentalism.
Criticisms of religious fundamentalism
Beckford (2011) criticizes scholars like Giddens, Bauman, and Castells for a few reasons:
They separate cosmopolitanism (global thinking) and fundamentalism (strict beliefs) too distinctly and don’t consider mixtures of these ideas.
They concentrate too much on fundamentalism, overlooking other significant changes happening globally, like how globalization affects non-fundamentalist religions like Catholicism.
Giddens groups all types of fundamentalism together without recognizing their differences.
Giddens describes fundamentalism as a defensive response to modernity, but Beckford says that reinventing tradition is also a modern activity.
Monotheism and fundamentalism
Giddens and Steve Bruce (2008) both link fundamentalism to traditionalists feeling threatened by the modern globalized world. However, Bruce believes fundamentalism is mostly found in monotheistic religions like Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. These religions have a single all-powerful God and a specific sacred text like the Qur’an or Bible, leading to strict beliefs. On the other hand, polytheistic religions like Hinduism, with multiple gods and no single text, allow more interpretations and lack a clear absolute truth.
Two fundamentalisms
In the West, fundamentalism often happens when society changes from the inside. This is seen in the New Christian Right in the US, which opposes things like diverse families, liberal sexual attitudes, and gender equality. They want to bring back what they see as the real religion to influence laws and society.
In developing countries, fundamentalism usually comes from changes imposed from the outside. Iran’s Islamic revolution is an example. Modernization and globalization bring Western values through foreign capitalism or local elites supported by the West. Here, fundamentalism resists being pushed aside by the government and wants to stay part of public life.
What did the Enlightenment phase lead to?
The Enlightenment phase (late 18th century to 1960s) brought religious fundamentalism as a response to secularization caused by optimistic beliefs in science and reason.
What is the second phase of modernity associated with?
The second phase (since the 1970s) is linked to a growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty due to factors like globalization, environmental concerns, and political changes.
Why has secular fundamentalism emerged?
Secular fundamentalism has emerged due to a loss of faith in traditional secular ideologies, caused by doubts about their claims to truth and progress.
What is the connection between secular ideologies and traditional religion?
Like traditional religion, secular ideologies also face challenges and supporters of secular ideologies can turn to fundamentalism.
