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Biology > Topic 5 - health, disease and the development of medicines > Flashcards

Topic 5 - health, disease and the development of medicines Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Define health

A

A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being

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2
Q

Define disease

A

A disorder of the body or mind that negatively affects an individual’s health

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3
Q

What are two types of disease?

A

Communicable

Non-communicable

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4
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

A disease that is passes directly between individuals

Caused by a pathogen

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5
Q

Define pathogen

A

A disease-causing organism

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6
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

A disease that cannot be transmitted between individuals

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7
Q

What is a symptom?

A

A change experienced by an organism that indicated disease

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8
Q

Why does having an illness make an individual more likely to contract another disease?

A

A disease may weaken an individual’s immune system making them increasingly susceptible to other infections

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9
Q

Describe cholera

A

Spread by drinking water or washing in water that has been contaminated
Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhoea
Caused by vibrio cholera bacterium

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10
Q

How can the incidence of cholera be reduced?

A

Access to clean water

Improved sanitation

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11
Q

Describe tuberculosis

A

Caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium
Is airborne bacteria spread by droplet infection
Symptoms: lung damage, chesty cough, wheezing

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12
Q

How can the transmission of TB be reduced?

A

Improved hygiene
Infected individuals avoid crowded areas
Increased ventilation in individual’s home

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13
Q

Describe chalaza ash dieback

A

Caused by a fungus that infects ash trees
Spread via airborne stored which are carried by the wind
Causes dark lesions on bark and blackened leaves which wilt and eventually die

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14
Q

How can the transmission of chalaza ash dieback disease be reduced?

A

Control the movement of ash trees
Kill infected plants
Replant with different species

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15
Q

Describe malaria

A

Caused by plasmodium protist
Spread by mosquito vectors
Flu-like symptoms, damage to red blood cells, liver damage

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16
Q

How can the incidence of malaria be reduced?

A

Mosquito nets
Insect repellant
Cover arms and legs

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17
Q

Describe stomach ulcers

A

Caused by helicobacter pylori bacterium
Transmitted orally by eating infected foods or drinking infected water
Symptoms: stomach pain, vomiting, nausea

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18
Q

How can the transmission of helicobacter pylori be reduced?

A

Access to clean water
Improved hygiene
Improved sanitation

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19
Q

Describe Ebola

A

Caused by Ebola virus
Spread by direct contact with infected body fluids
Symptoms: fever, diarrhoea, vomiting, internal bleeding

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20
Q

How can the transmission of Ebola be reduced?

A

Improved hygiene
Isolating infected individuals
Sterilisation of outbreak areas

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21
Q

Describe simply how viruses cause disease

A

They enter host cells and replicate inside of them. The host cells rupture, releasing new viruses

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22
Q

How do viruses differ from other microorganisms?

A

They are not living

They do not reproduce and can only replicate inside a host cell

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23
Q

By what two pathways do viruses replicate inside living cells?

A

Lytic pathway

Lysogenic pathway

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24
Q

Describe the lytic pathway

A

Virus binds to receptors on host cell
Injects its DNA into host cell and replicated its DNA using host cell machinery
New viral structures are produced and assembled
Host cell ruptures, releasing new viruses

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25
Q

Describe the lysogenic pathway

A

Virus binds to receptors on host cell
Viral DNA injected into host cell and becomes integrated into host cell genome
Viral DNA replicated each time the host cell divides but the cell remains normal
Trigger causes the activation of viral DNA, it enters the lytic pathway

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26
Q

Describe HIV

A

Caused by human immunodeficiency virus
Spread by direct contact with infected bodily fluids
Destroys white blood cells making the individual immunodeficient and increasingly susceptible to other diseases, leads to aids

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27
Q

How can the spread of HIV be reduced?

A

Protected sex
Needle exchange
Screening blood
Deterring infected mothers from breastfeeding

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28
Q

Describe chlamydia

A

Caused by chlamydia bacterium
Spread through sexual contact
Can result in infertility

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29
Q

How can the transmission of chlamydia be reduced?

A

Protected sex

Screening

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30
Q

Describe the physical defence system within plants

A

Waterproof waxy cuticle

Cellulose cell wall

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31
Q

Give examples of chemical barriers in plants

A

Secretion of toxins to reduce damage by pests

Production of antibacterial chemicals that kill bacterial pathogens

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32
Q

Why are chemicals produced by plants useful?

A

They produce physiological effects on the body so can be used in medicines

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33
Q

Give an example of a medicine derived from plants

A

Aspirin - painkiller, bark/Leaves of salix alba

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34
Q

Why are plant defence systems important?

A

Important in maintaining human food security

Are producers so all organisms higher up the food chains rely on their survival

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35
Q

How can plant diseases be detected and identified in the field.

A

Observation of symptoms
Analysis of distribution
Changing environmental conditions

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36
Q

Why is it difficult to identify a disease using symptoms alone?

A

Many diseases may have similar symptoms

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37
Q

How can plant diseases be detected and identified in the lab?

A

Detection of foreign antigens in a sample of plant tissue

Analysis of DNA to identify and pathogen DNA in a tissue sample

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38
Q

What is a non-specific defence?

A

Always present
Same for all organisms
Prevents pathogens from entering the body

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39
Q

Give three examples of the body’s physical defence system

A

Skin
Blood clotting
Respiratory tract

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40
Q

Give two examples of the body’s chemical defence system

A

Tears (lysozyme)

Hydrochloric acid

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41
Q

What is the immune system?

A

The body’s defence against pathogens once they have entered the body
Aims to prevent or minimise disease caused by pathogens

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42
Q

How do white blood cells detect pathogens in the body?

A

They have unique antigens on their surface which are detected by specialised receptors on white blood cells

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43
Q

How does the immune system destroy pathogens?

A

Lymphocytes produce antibodies in response to a particular antigen
Each antibody is specific to an antigen and binds to it
Antibodies clump pathogens together, disabling them so that they can be killed by other white blood cells

44
Q

What are memory lymphocytes?

A

White blood cells produced in response to a foreign antigen that remains in the body after a pathogen is destroyed to provide immunity

45
Q

Compare primary and secondary immune responses

A

The secondary response produces antibodies more rapidly and in higher concentrations than the primary so the pathogen is destroyed before it can cause symptoms

46
Q

What is a vaccination?

A

Deliberate exposure of an individual to foreign antigens
Triggers an immune response and provides immunity
The individual does not contract the disease that they are being immunised against

47
Q

Describe the components of a vaccine

A

Dead, weakened or inactivated pathogens with their surface antigens still present

48
Q

What are the benefits of vaccinations?

A

Herd immunity

Helps to prevent epidemics and pandemics

49
Q

What are the drawbacks of vaccinations?

A

Not guaranteed to work
May cause an adverse reaction
Programmes are costly
High mutation rate of viruses changes the structure of antigens, making the vaccine ineffective

50
Q

What is an antibiotic?

A

A substance that kills or inhibits growth of bacteria

51
Q

Describe how ‘target’ molecules for new medicines can be identified

A

The alleles themselves or the proteins that they code can be used as a target
Comparisons of the genomes of unaffected individuals and those who are affected by a disease to identify potential disease-causing alleles

52
Q

Outline the stages of drug development

A

Screening for potential drugs
Preclinical trials
Clinical trials
Approved by a medicinal agency

53
Q

Describe the process of screening

A

Uses a machine to test large libraries of chemical substances
Enables identification of pre-existing chemicals which may affect the target molecule
Chemicals may be altered, allowing scientists to produce a drug that reacts with target molecules in a specific way

54
Q

What do preclinical trials involve?

A

Drug tested on cultured human cells and using computer models to determine its toxicity and efficiency
Drug then tested on live animals to establish a safe dose for humans and observe and side effects

55
Q

What happens during comical testing?

A

The drug is first tested on healthy human volunteers to ensure that it is safe to use and has no unwanted effects on the body
Drug then tested on patients with the disease to determine its efficacy
Dosage is slowly increased until an upper limit is established
Optimum dosage is found

56
Q

What are placebos?

A

A substance that appears just like the real drug but has no effect on the recipient

57
Q

What is a blind trial?

A

Where the participants don’t know whether they are receiving the new drug or the placebo
Prevents the patient’s bias affecting the results

58
Q

What is a double blind trial?

A

Neither the participants nor the doctors know who is receiving the new drug or the placebo
Prevents bias from doctors when analysing results

59
Q

What is the problem associated with using placebos on patients with a disease?

A

It might not be ethical to prescribe a sick patient with a placebo knowing that it will do nothing to help their condition

60
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Antibodies that are clones from one parent cell

Specific to one type of antigen

61
Q

Describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced

A

Specific antigen injected into an animal
Lymphocytes producing complementary antibodies extracted
Lymphocytes fuse with myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells
Hybridoma cells cultured
Monoclonal antibodies collected and purified

62
Q

What are myeloma cells?

A

Type of tumour cell

63
Q

Outline the uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

Detection of pathogens
Location of cancer cells and blood clots
Treatment of cancer
Used in pregnancy test kits

64
Q

What do pregnancy kits test for?

A

HCG in urine

65
Q

What does a pregnancy test consist of?

A

A stick containing monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG

66
Q

Describe what happens to the test stick if the woman is pregnant

A

hCG in urine binds to monoclonal antibodies attached to a blue bead
Monoclonal antibodies with hCG diffuse up dipstick
Monoclonal antibodies fixed to the stick bind to hCG
Blue line forms

67
Q

Describe what happens to the test stick if a woman if not pregnant

A

No blue line is formed

68
Q

What is the advantage of using monoclonal antibodies to test for pathogens?

A

Specific to one particular antigen
Very accurate
Quick results

69
Q

Why can monoclonal antibodies be used to target cancer cells?

A

Cancer cells have specific antigens called ‘tumour markers’ on their membranes
Monoclonal antibodies are specific to one type of antigen so can be targeted to ‘tumour markers’ without damaging other cells

70
Q

Describe how monoclonal antibodies can be used to diagnose cancer

A

They are tagged to a radioactive substance
They are injected into the blood stream
They bind to

71
Q

Why are cancer treatments that use monoclonal antibodies favoured over traditional treatments?

A

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy target rapidly dividing cells
Healthy cells are damaged as a consequence, producing unpleasant side effects
Monoclonal antibodies only target cancer cells, reducing damage to normal cells

72
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to locate blood clots?

A

They are tagged to a radioactive substance
They target and bind to specific proteins in blood clots
The radiation is detected, enabling the location to be identified

73
Q

Give some examples of non-communicable diseases

A

Cancer
Diabetes
Cardiovascular diseases
Chronic respiratory diseases

74
Q

What is a risk factor?

A

A variable associated with a greater chance of developing a disease or infection

75
Q

Outline the factors that can affect the risk of developing a non-communicable disease

A

Lifestyle
Environmental
Genetics

76
Q

Explain the statement “correlation does not mean causation”

A

Correlation. Between a risk factor and a disease does not mean the risk factor caused the disease

77
Q

Describe how exercise affects the risk of some non-communicable diseases

A

Regular exercise decreases fat stores, reducing obesity

It decreases heart rate, recovery time and blood pressure

78
Q

Describe how diets affects the Rick of some non-communicable diseases

A

A high fat diet raises blood cholesterol levels, increasing the deposition of fatty deposits in the arteries
Obesity and the consumption of large amounts of simple sugars increases the risk of type 2 diabetes
Malnourishment increases the Rick of deficiency diseases

79
Q

Give an example of a deficiency disease

A

Scurvy

Anaemia

80
Q

What is the body mass index?

A

A value based on height and mass used to categorise an individual as underweight, Normal, overweight and obese

81
Q

How is BMI calculated?

A

Mass/height^2

82
Q

Why isn’t BMI always an accurate measure of obesity?

A

Fat and muscle tissue cannot be distinguished so athletes may be incorrectly categorised as obese

83
Q

How is waist to hip ratio calculated?

A

Waist circumference/hip circumference

84
Q

Describe how alcohol affects the risk of some non-communicable diseases

A

It raises blood pressure
The toxic products in the alcohol can cause mutations to DNA increasing the risk of cancer
Alcohol broken down into toxic products in the liver which build up and cause scarring of liver tissue

85
Q

Describe how smoking affects the Rick of some non-communicable diseases

A

Nicotine raises heart rate
Carbon monoxide lowers the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen
Carcinogens in tar can cause mutations to DNA, increasing the risk of cancer
Increases the Rick of lung disease

86
Q

How do environmental factors affect the risk of some non-communicable diseases?

A

Long term exposure to pollution damages the airways, Increasing the risk of lung diseases and cancer
Exposure to UV radiation damages DNA, increasing the risk of DNA mutations and skin cancer

87
Q

How do genetics affect the risk of some non-communicable diseases?

A

Faulty genes can be inherited which increase the Rick of conditions such as breast cancer

88
Q

How do diseases interact with each other?

A

Some may cause other infections to develop

Some reduce the risk of contracting other infections

89
Q

Describe the effects of non-communicable disease on a local level

A

An increased incidence of non-communicable disease puts a strain on local hospitals with limited resources

90
Q

Describe the effects of non-communicable disease Ona national level

A

Increased pressure on NHS to provide treatment to a larger number of patients

91
Q

Describe the effects of non-communicable disease on a global level

A

High prevalence of malnutrition in LEDCs slows the development of such countries which in turn impacts global development

92
Q

What is cardiovascular disease?

A

Group of diseases affecting the heart or blood vessels
Build of of fatty deposits on the walls of the arteries forms at hero as which reduce blood flow to muscle tissue
Blood clots may form, blocking the arteries and stopping blood flow completely. This can lead to a heart attack or stroke

93
Q

How can CVD lead to a heart attack?

A

Obstruction of a coronary artery due to an atheroma or blood clot
Results in loss of blood supply to an area of heart muscle
This causes death of the cells and leads to a heart attack

94
Q

How can CVD be treated?

A

Improving diet and lifestyle
Medication
Surgery

95
Q

What changes to diet and lifestyle can be made to reduce the risk of CVD?

A 
Regular exercise
Reduce intake of saturated fat 
Maintenance of a healthy weight 
Diet low in salt
Reduce stress
Stop smoking and drinking alcohol
96
Q

How effecting are changes to lifestyle and diet in treating CVD?

A

Although they are not themselves effective, they can enhance the efficiency of other methods of treatment

97
Q

Which three medicines are used to treat CVD?

A

Statins
Anticoagulants
Antihypertensives

98
Q

Outline the benefits vs the risks of using statins to treat CVD

A

Stating lower the level of sholesterol in the blood

However, they can cause liver damage, kidney failure or problems with memory

99
Q

Outline the benefits vs the risks of using anticoagulants to treat CVD

A

They reduce blood clotting, lowering the risk of heart attack or stroke
They can cause excessive bleeding

100
Q

Outline the benefits vs the risks of using antihypertensives to treat CVD

A

They lower blood pressure, reducing damage to artery walls and the build up of atheromas
They can have unpleasant side effects such as headaches, dizziness or fainting

101
Q

What are stents?

A

Small, hollow tubes inserted into the lumen of arteries to keep them open
Require surgery to insert

102
Q

What are the problems with the use of stents to treat CVD?

A

They cause the growth of scar tissue in the arteries over time, further narrowing the lumen
Blood clots may stick to stents

103
Q

What is a coronary bypass?

A

Using a blood vessel from another region of the body to divert blood around a blockage in the coronary artery

104
Q

What does a heart transplant involve?

A

Replacing a damaged heart with a donated heart

Immunosuppressant drugs taken to prevent organ rejection

105
Q

Describe the benefits of heart surgery

A

Life saving

Can provide a permanent solution to a disease

106
Q

Describe the risks of heart surgery

A 
Involves many risks
Difficult to find a suitable donor
Risk or rejection
Immunosuppressant drugs must be taken for life
Long recovery time
Expensive

Biology (8 decks)

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