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Biology > Topic 2 - cells and control > Flashcards

Topic 2 - cells and control Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

A series of event that take place in a cell involving cell growth, DNA replication and cell division
It is described as the life cycle of a cell

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2
Q

What is interphase?

A

The cell grows. New organelles are synth sized and the DNA is replicated

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3
Q

What are the stages of mitosis?

A 
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
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4
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A linear DNA molecule tightly coiled around proteins

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5
Q

What happens to chromosomes during DNA replication?

A

The DNA in the ‘arm’ of each chromosome is replicated

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6
Q

What is mitosis?

A

a form of cell division that produces two diploid ‘daughter’ cells, both genetically identical to the parent cell

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7
Q

Why is mitosis important in organisms?

A

Asexual reproduction
Growth
Repair of damaged cells
Cell replacement

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8
Q

Outline prophase

A

DNA condenses, chromosomes become visible

Nuclear membrane disappears

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9
Q

Outline metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up along the cell equator

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10
Q

Outline anaphase

A

Spindle fibres attach to each chromosome
‘Arms’ of each chromosome pulled to opposite poles
Chromatids separated

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11
Q

Outline telophase

A

Nucleus of the cell divides

New membrane forms around each set of chromosomes

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12
Q

What does cytokinesis involve?

A

Division of the cell membrane and cytoplasm

Two genetically identical ‘daughter’ cells produced

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13
Q

What is cancer?

A

Non-communicable disease
Uncontrolled cell division which results in the formation of a primary tumour
Tumour cells break off and spread to other tissues forming secondary tumours

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14
Q

What are percentile charts?

A

A chart used to monitor growth

Measurements can be compared to the expected values at a certain age

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15
Q

What does the 95th percentile mean?

A

95% of measurements will be below the value of the 95th percentile

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16
Q

What can doctors determine from percentile charts?

A

Slower growth than normal
Faster growth than normal
Abnormal growth

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17
Q

Describe growth in animals

A

Cell division occurs in body Cells. It occurs at a slower rate in adults that in younger animals as growth stops and cell division is only required for replacement and repair
Most cells differentiate at an early stage and become specialised some adult stem cells retain their ability to differentiate

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18
Q

Describe growth in plants

A

Cell division can only occur in meristemic tissue. The rate of cell division remains the same throughout a plant’s life
Meristematic stem cells can differentiate into any cell type for as long as the plant lives
Cell elongation occurs in all cells. Cells expand and enlarge

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19
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Cells that are unspecialised and capable of differentiating into a range of different cell types

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20
Q

What is meant be differentiation?

A

The process by which stem cells become specialised

Some genes switch on or off determining cell types

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21
Q

Why is cell differentiation important?

A

It enables the formation of specialised tissues with specific functions

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22
Q

What are embryonic stem cells?

A

Stem cells found in very early embryos that are unspecialised and capable of differentiating into any cell type

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23
Q

What is the function of embryonic stem cells?

A

Enable the growth and development of tissues in human embryos

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24
Q

What are adult stem cells?

A

Stem cells that can differentiate into a limited range of cell types e.g bone marrow stem cells

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25
Q

What is the primary function of adult stem cells?

A

Replacement of dead cells

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26
Q

Where are stem cells found in plants?

A

Meristem

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27
Q

Where is the meristem tissue found?

A

In regions of the plant where cells are continuously diving

28
Q

What are meristematic stem cells?

A

Stem cells found in meristems that are unspecialised and capable of differentiating into any cell type during the life of a plant

29
Q

How can stem cells be used in medicine?

A

Stem cells collected
Stem cells stimulated to differentiate into specific cell types
Specialised cells transplanted into the patient
Used to treat damage or disease

30
Q

Where can embryonic stem cells be collected from?

A

Donor stem cells removed from embryos grown in vitro

Patients own stem cells removed from the umbilical blood before birth

31
Q

What are the benefits of using stem cells in medicine?

A

Treat damage or disease
Treat diseases that would otherwise be untreatable
Used in scientific research
Growing organs for transplants

32
Q

What are the risks of stem cell use in medicine?

A

Transplanted stem cells could cause tumours
Finding suitable stem cell donors is a difficult task
Stem cells may be rejected by the body
Potential side effects
Long term risks of using stem cells Unknown’s
Stem cells may become contaminated during preparation and when transplanted transmit infections to the patient, making them sicker

33
Q

What are the ethical issues related to the use of stem cells in medicine?

A

The embryos that were used to provide stem cells are destroyed which is seen as unethical and a waste of potential human life
May lead to the reproductive cloning of humans

34
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

Brain and spinal cord

35
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A

A long, thin structure composed of neurones that extends from the medulla oblongata

36
Q

What is the function of the spinal cord?

A

Connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain

37
Q

Describe the structure of the brain

A

Consists of three main regions:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata

38
Q

Describe the structure of the cerebrum

A

Largest region of the brain

Divided into two hemispheres

39
Q

What is the function of the cerebrum?

A 
Involved in:
Intelligence
Language
Memory
Emotion
Visual and sensory processes
40
Q

What is the function of each cerebral hemisphere?

A

Left hemisphere receives sensory information form the right side of the body and controls the muscles
Right hemisphere receives sensensory information and controls the muscles

41
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Lower region of the brain

42
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Involved in:
Coordination of muscles
Voluntary movement
Non-voluntary movement

43
Q

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

A

Controls automatic processes in the body

44
Q

What methods, other than surgery, are used by doctors to observe the brain?

A

Ct scan

PET scan

45
Q

What is a CT scan?

A

A procedure that uses X-rays to produce 3D cross-sectional images of the brain

46
Q

Describe how CT scams are useful to investigate brain function

A

CT scans show damaged regions oft the brain

Observations of the patient’s symptoms can enable scientists to determine the function of the damaged region

47
Q

What does a PET scan involve?

A

Radioactive substance unjected into a patient’s bloodstream and taken up by tissues in the brain
Radiation emitted by tissues detected, enabling the identification of active inactive regions of the brain

48
Q

Describe how PET scans are useful to investigate brain function

A

Show which areas of the brainier active and which areas are not
Comparisons of brain activity in healthy patients and patients with brain damage allow scientists to determine the functions of inactive regions

49
Q

Why is it difficult to treat damage to the CNS?

A

Damage to neurones is permanent and cannot be repaired
Hard to reach some areas of the brain
Risk of further permanent damage to others areas of the CNS during surgery

50
Q

What is the function of the nervous system?

A

Allows an organism to rapidly react to environmental and internal changes

51
Q

What are neurones?

A

Nerve cells adapted to quickly transmit nerve Impulses

They are the functional units of the nervous system

52
Q

What is the function of the axon?

A

Carries impulses away from the cell body

Enables the transmission of the nerve impulses over long distances

53
Q

What is the function of the dendrites and dendrons?

A

Carry impulses towards the cell body

Dendrites provide a large surface area to receive impulses

54
Q

What is the role of the myelin sheath?

A

Electrically insulating layer

Surrounds the axon and increases the speed of impulses

55
Q

Outline the function of a sensory neurone

A

Carries impulses from receptors to the central nervous system

56
Q

Describe the structure of a sensory neurone

A

Long dendron carties impulses from receptior to the cell body
Cell body found part way along the neurone
Short axon carries impulses from the cell body to the CNS

57
Q

Outline the function of a motor neurone

A

Carries impulses from the central nervous system to effectors

58
Q

Describe the structure of a motor neurone

A

Short dendrites carry impulses from the CNS to the cell body
Cell body found at one end of the neurone
Long axon carries impulses from the cell body to the effectors

59
Q

Outline the function of a relay neurone

A

Carries impulses from sensory neurones to motor neurones within the central nervous system

60
Q

Describe the structure of the relay neurone

A

Short dendrites carry impulses from sensory neurones to the cell body
Short axon carries impulses from the cell body to motor neurones

61
Q

Describe how the central nervous system coordinates a response to a stimulus

A

Sensory receptor detects stimulus
Sensory receptor sends impulses along sensory neurone to CNS
CNS sends information to effector along motor neurone effector produces a response to the stimulus

62
Q

What is a synapse?

A

A small gap between neurones across which a nerve impulse Is transmitted via neurotransmitters

63
Q

How are nerve impulses transmitted across a synapse?

A

Nerve impulse reaches presunaptic neurone
This triggers the release of neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse
They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neurone
This stimulates an impulse in the postsynaptic neurone

64
Q

Why do synapses slow doe. The transmission of nerve impulses?

A

It takes time for the neurotransmitters to diffuses across the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neurone

65
Q

What is a reflex?

A

Automatic response to a stimulus by the body
Involuntary - does not involve conscious part of the brain
Protective mechanism

66
Q

Describe the reflex arc

A

Stimulus -> sensory receptor -> sensory neurone -> relay neurone -> motor neurone -> effector -> response

Biology (8 decks)

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