Topic 4: Environmental Factors Flashcards
What is the differential association theory?
largely a reaction to prevailing psychological and psychiatric conceptualizations
rooted in observation that crime concentrates in areas especially plagued by: low SES, overcrowding, high unemployment, etc.
the social controls that normally limit crime are absent, or deficient
ratio of criminal to non-criminal associations is of paramount importance
merely hanging out with criminals isn’t enough: exposure to their norms and attitudes is required
What are the nine propositions of differential association theory?
criminal behavior is neither inherited or reinvented with each criminal, it’s learned
the learning isn’t function of formal instruction; it comes from social interaction
the interaction must be firsthand, not indirect as through TV or other media (TV wasn’t around in 1939)
the content of learning is: technique, motives, attitudes, supporting cognitions
the learned content is only criminal if it conflicts with the law; it isn’t inherently “anti-law”, it’s about a clash of cultures
the degree to which one becomes a criminal depends on how much content (“code”) is learned (internalized)
code learning, and therefore degree of criminality, is a function of length, frequency, intensity, historical sequencing, and personal impact of exposure
it’s true learning, affected by reinforcement; not just mimicry
the learning, and resulting attitudes etc., are not a function of material need; these things could be obtained legitimately
What are the problems with differential association theory?
fails to address person/exposure interactions: i.e., why do some people become criminals, while others don’t under similar conditions
causation or correlation?
while the theory is largely about attitude change, we can’t be sure that shifts of that type are what actually precipitate crime; it could be some other factor (e.g., motivation, fear, etc.)
generates few testable hypotheses (in it’s original form)
doesn’t adequately specify the sub-processes (subsumed under social interaction) that actually produce the changes in question
What are strain theories?
crime isn’t about a clash in cultures, it’s about agreement (i.e., the “deviant” group wants as many DVD players as their non-criminal counterparts
strain/anomie = disparity between goals and means of obtaining those goals
class structure (i.e., the presence of lower classes) guarantees its survival
so why isn’t everyone from the lower classes a criminal?: most people “earn their place”, others reject the goals, means, or both
What are the five responses described in the strain theories?
conformity: grin and bear it
innovation: find another way (possibly crime)
retreatism: give up (maybe suicide)
ritualism: lowered expectations
rebellion: “overthrow” existing value structure
What are the problems with strain theories?
mechanism of selection (i.e., who rejects means or goals) is unclear
crimes exist at all levels of SES
What is control theory?
we’re barbarians by nature: criminality isn’t the unnatural state, conformity is!
so how would it come about?
natural socialized restraints: intact self-concept, positive goal orientation, sufficient frustration tolerance, personal commitment to social norms, roles and relationships that fulfill social needs
messing up (criminally) puts these things at risk, and might invite punishment
In control theory, what stops us from crossing the line?
attachment to others: think about how your actions impact others
keeping bust with productive and legal pursuits (“idle hands are the tools of the devil”)
commitment to pro-social norms, and believing they are good and proper
What are the problems with strain theory?
attachment to others and commitment to pro-social norms aren’t really good predictors of crime avoidance, at least over the long term (good with younger kids though)
how bonds are loosened or broken is not clear; it might be affiliation with antisocial peers that caused these breakdowns in the first place
doesn’t account for “self-control”; all control is presumed to be socially exerted
What are the three central assumptions of labeling theory?
it’s the rich and influential who get to decide what’s criminal; behavior is neither lawful nor unlawful in and of itself
the justice industry (police, courts, media, jailers) base their treatment of offenders on their demographic characteristics (gender, race, age, SES, etc.) not their crime
once these folks have labeled you a deviant (publicly), a criminogenic and vicious cycle has begun (secondary deviance)
the initial crime (primary deviance) is almost immaterial; it’s the subsequent stigma that does the real damage
What are the problems with labeling theory?
the stipulated weak relationship between crime and punishment simply isn’t there
Morash (1982) experienced delinquents are less affected by the social affects of labeling
in truth, there’s little evidence to support this theory
What are the three main classes of learning theories?
applied behavioral analysis (more purely, or radically behavioral)
neo-behavioral (combined Pavlovian and instrumental concepts)
social learning theory (cognitive-behavioral)
What are the characteristics of social learning theories?
symbolic (mental) processes: vital means of testing behaviors, evaluating outcomes
roles of reinforcers: create expectancies
role of individuals in shaping environment: important, large effect
What are the characteristics of applied behavioral analysis?
symbolic (mental) processes: “mini” behaviors
role of reinforcers: simply strength behavior
role of individuals in shaping environment: effect is only incidental
What are the steps in Mowrer-Miller’s two-process model?
situational cues (including one’s own movements) become Pavlovian CSs for USs; where this involves an aversive US, a CR in the form of fear and anxiety results
avoidance of those cues is instrumentally reinforced in the case of aversive URs; pursuit is reinforced in appetitive USs
What is desensitization?
most mammalian species have serious avoidance of hurting our own species
have to get past natural disinclination; psychological defense to being paralyzed to seeing death
doing this through showing people violent video games, great way to desensitize
How was desensitization used in Samurai training?
Pavlovian aspect: they are learning to associate murder with fun party occurs with increased frequently
operant aspect: positive reinforcement, being rewarded for killing
What is target evolution?
start with a target, the move up to shooting a silhouette target; more battlefield ready when shooting silhouette
can have a person who is great at shooting range; not good against a human being, accuracy and firing rate decreased
How is socialization explained through the mechanics of social learning?
socialization is largely a matter of response inhibition, so the case of aversive URs is seen as more important
in deviants, the CRs simply don’t develop adequately because…
punishment cues were not adequately established in childhood
the individual responds abnormally to punishment contingencies: could be neurologically based
What is the problem with having socialization explained through the mechanics of social learning?
avoidance learning is perfectly possible in the absence of anxiety or arousal
How do we get around the problem with having socialization explained through the mechanics of social learning?
affective responses develop in the course of mental rehearsal
the result of prior conditioning that has imbued various features of the mental imagery with affective strength
vicarious processes are also included
the “status” of the model is important; influenced models that we choose to imitate; select on basis of their perceived power to manipulate reward contingencies
How is self-control explained in behaviorism?
self-control = self-administered rewards and punishments
implies complex, but implicit contingency contracts
can be modified by internal dialogue (cognitive restructuring)
e.g., it’s wrong to kill! (except in war, or if he takes my parking space)
What is the difference between desistance and guilt?
just a question of where in the response chain self-punishment is applied
earlier –> desistance
later –> guilt
