Topic 2: Developmental Factors Flashcards
How does criminality change over time?
crime can be highly transient over the lifespan
such much so, that a subfield known as developmental criminology has emerged: seeks to identify mediators, developmental trajectories
which influences have most impact may depend on current developmental stage: e.g., low VIQ in childhood, negative peers in adolescence
this is of obvious interest for early detection and intervention: idea is to alter trajectory, easier at earlier (younger) stages
“experimenters” are the majority of youthful offenders but outgrow it by late adolescence
What are the developmental risk factors that contribute to delinquency?
cognitive deficits (low intelligence)
scholastic factors: school refusal/withdrawal, failure
familial factors: low attachment, limited supervision, inappropriate disciplinary practices
low SES
antisocial peer affiliation
What does cognitive development refer to?
attention
concentration
memory
higher executive functioning: planning, problem solving, thinking ahead to future consequences (anticipation)
What are the relevant measures of cognitive development?
standardized IQ batteries: e.g., CAS, WISC-V/WAIS-V, predict academic success well (i.e., high correlation)
neuropsychological measures
individually administered
yield highly reliable estimates
tap a broad range of abilities
What is social cognition?
should also be considered, through far less research has been done in this realm
ability to comprehend the behavior and motives of others
What is moral reasoning?
not well correlated with offending behavior in some subgroups
lack of understanding vs. concern
Are criminals “stupid”?
usually means MR, (IQ < 70)
this only describes a small percentage (i.e., about 2% to 9.5%)
these estimates come from prisons; don’t count custody diversion cases or parolees
differential apprehension effect/artifact?
How strong of a predictor is IQ?
Hirschi & Hindelang (1977): stronger than social class: 0.16 to 0.31 vs. 0.09 to 0.18, in the same order as race (0.26 to 0.27)
Lynam, Moffitt & Stouthamer-Loeber (1993): delinquents score 10 to 11 points lower than non-delinquents in FSIQ, about 8 points lower on VIQ
How does it being an apprehension artifact explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?
lower intellect –> less success concealing crime –> greater rate of arrest
How does their IQs being lower because of their delinquent lifestyle explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?
drugs, HI, school dropout
problem: longitudinal studies have shown the lower IQ predicts subsequent criminality
How does IQ effects being mediated by poor scholastic achievement and social adjustment explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?
Lynam et al. (1993) wrote that this is true of blacks, but not whites
explains why most people with lower IQ are not involved in crime
think of a dimmer switch: press = on/off (moderation), rotate = brightness (mediation)
What is the mediator and moderator relationship between poor scholastic achievement and criminality in white populations versus black populations?
independent variable: intelligence
moderator: race (white or black)
mediator: scholastic achievement (only for minority)
dependent variable: criminality
What are mediators?
attenuate relationship between IV and DV
What are moderators?
enable or disable relationship between mediator and DV
How does the fact that low IQ scores are merely correlates of deeper, more pervasive deficits explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?
suggests IQ differences underestimate the true magnitude of more relevant deficits
school failure is a correlate, not a result or cause, of the same deficit(s)
What is the Porporino & Robinson (1992) study on targeting educational deficits?
n = 1736 Canadian adult inmates; average academic level ~ grad 6
goal: raise achievement by two grade levels in reading and math
three groups at one-year follow-up
completers: 30% re-incarceration rate
discharges: 36% re-incarceration rate
withdrawals: 42% re-incarceration rate
when education increased, re-incarceration decreased
the researchers controlled for risk level: selection bias may have been a factor
What was the Perry Preschool Project?
hybrid design: new cohort added yearly
low SES kids (IQ 60-88)
experimental group: 1 to 2 years preschool + weekly home visits by teacher
control group: no preschool + weekly home visits by teacher
What were the results of the Perry Preschool Project?
experimental group subjects, at age 19, had significantly fewer arrests and were more likely to be employed
caution: neither group membership (when correlated for education) nor IQ predicted delinquency; education attainment did (r = 0.36)
at age 27, 71% of experimental subjects had HS diploma vs. 54% of controls
Why have more recent studies in targeting education deficits reported more equivocal results?
adult vs. child samples
failing to target specific deficits (e.g., LDs)
How are parochial schools related to criminality?
parochial schools produce fewer delinquents
parents who care about education monitor their child’s actions more
reflects the preferences of the parents, produce fewer delinquents
How are school atmospheres related to criminality?
school atmospheres that are “warm but restrictive” likewise produce fewer delinquents
have control, but the children don’t feel alienated
chill, but maintain control of the classroom
What is normal brain development?
by age 6, a child’s brain has reached about 90% of its adult size
girls brains are at full size by about 11-12 years old
boys by about 13
yet the brain isn’t fully developed until about 25
analogy: moving to another house is like moving from childhood to adulthood; the boxes (CNS mass) are there but it takes time to unpack and organize
there is a premium on ability to learn rapidly, yet the brain can’t be so unstable (changeable) that learned information and skills are lost
What is proliferation?
the formation of new synaptic connections through learning
adolescence is a period of neural exuberance where new connections are rapidly formed in response to environmental stimuli
What is pruning?
a critical part of brain maturation involving the loss of unnecessary synaptic connections
takes place largely through myelination (growth of white matter that “insulates” neurons and makes brain more efficient)
What brain structures are involved in antisocial behavior?
mainly the mesolimbic system; can be though of as a reward center
ventral tegmental area releases dopamine into nucleus accumbens; affects motivation to pursue reward stimuli
this is highly implicated in addictions of virtually every kind
going from adolescence to adulthood, about 50% of the neurons in this area are pruned
hence, (apparently) greater capacity to defer gratification combined with lowered approach tendencies
What is the prefrontal cortex?
the prefrontal cortex is that part of the brain most responsible for higher executive functioning
planning, decision making, suppressing urges, social decision making, representing info not currently in environment “mental sketch pad”, dynamic filtering: brain deciding what to pay attention to and what not to do
owing to its added complexity, the PFC matures later than deeper brain structures
it has the ability to inhibit behaviors: while the PFC is still in development, the tendency for risk taking. short term goal directed behavior is inordinately strong
as the PFC matures and neurons in the mesolimbic pathway prune, we gain control and reduce risk taking
this is not about risk tolerance or inability to accurately calculate risk; those are “intact” well before the end of adolescence
How is moderate corporal punishment (CP) is associated with increased child aggressiveness?
positive association overall between CP and aggression
greatest damage between never using CP and using CP in the past 6 months
Why is corporal punishment associated with increased child aggressiveness?
when done impulsively, the punishment contingency may be improperly structured
done in anger, the child may perceive CP as function of parental instability: resentment, anger
“Wait until your father gets home”: associates good behavior with and CP
modeling effects: shows violence is okay
disrupts parent-child bonding
lowered self-esteem: eating disorders, rebellion, MDD, anxiety
CP is also associated with increased risk for mental health problems and diminished empathy later in the child’s life
it has been suggested that “responsible” vs. impulsive CP results in fewer negative effects
What are family factors associated with antisocial factors?
several studies have pointed out that a disproportionately high number of criminals come from broken homes: highly confounded with other factors however, such as SES, level of supervision, etc.
Gove & Crutchfield (1982) pointed out that children from intact, but conflicted homes may be worse off: children raised by a single parent, but in non-conflicted homes are less likely to become delinquents
How does dad’s discipline contribute to antisocial behavior?
low risk: firm but kind
high risk: lax, erratic, or excessive
How does mom’s supervision contribute to antisocial behavior?
low risk: attentive, suitable
high risk: distant, detached
How does parent’s affection contribute to antisocial behavior?
low risk: warm
high risk: hostile
How does family cohesiveness contribute to antisocial behavior?
low risk: close but differentiated
high risk: unintegrated or enmeshed
What is the Butterfly Effect?
a metaphor in Chaos theory
even in cases of apparent randomness (non-predictability), there are underlying pattens and causal forces at play
“sensitive dependence on initial conditions”: small differences at one point can cause massive differences elsewhere (or later in time)
What is Terrie Moffit’s (1993) model of developmental, learning, and biological factors interacting to produce criminal behaviors?
Moffit’s model was inspired by the observation that crime committed by youths increases sharply between puberty and roughly age 18
after that, most youths return to relatively crime-free lives (adolescent limited)
about 5-6% go on to become “career criminals” well into adulthood (life course persistent)
What risk factors for life course persistent criminals?
LCP children present with a higher incidence of ADHD, and are more likely to come from homes that expose them to other risk factors
lower school performance: teachers get frustrated
problems in socializing: few prosocial friends
parent-child interactions are more likely to be strained: this may lead to further abuse (i.e., harsh and inconsistent discipline), in extreme cases possibly brain damage, difficult kids are more likely to come from homes with limited money and low access to professional resources
as they develop, there is higher incidence of: substance abuse, trouble accepting restrictions and limits, unplanned pregnancies, substandard educational attainment, lack of legal coping strategies, criminal records that limit future employment
What is the self-perpetuating cycle of life course persistent children?
LPC children dig themselves further and further into problems
recovering to a non-criminal lifestyle becomes very difficult
the early age of onset is the key
What are the characteristics of adolescent limited children?
by the time they get into trouble (after puberty), the core set of social and academic skills is in place: they usually smarten up
question: so why do they get into crime in the first place?
answer: we bear some of the blame for that!
What is the maturational gap and it’s impact on adolescent limited children?
traditionally, most societies have had rites of passage
today, these are largely absent in western society
reaching adulthood gets “delayed”: biologically, we mature as fast, or faster than ever
adolescent limited kids try to close the gap through illegal means: sex, alcohol, money, peer status, etc.
as the maturational gap closes naturally, the motivation to commit crime no longer exists: most antisocial behavior by teens drops after age 17 or 18
