Topic 4- demography and social change? Flashcards
Introduction?
There is some disagreement amongst socialists about which are the most significant social changes; however, most will agree that changes in marriage, divorce, cohabitation, and longer life expectancy are key factors.
Marriage?
Between 1962 and 2008, marriages in the UK declined overall, despite a sharp increase in 1972. While marriage rates were relatively high in the 1970s and 1980s, the number of religious ceremonies has decreased. New right thinkers argue that government policies, particularly the welfare state, discourage marriage. Shiela Lawlor (2012) contends that paid maternity leave leads women to work part-time and depend on state support. Charles Murray (1990) links welfare payments to issues such as unmarried parenthood, crime, and young men’s reluctance to take responsibility for their children. Additionally, traditional religious beliefs are being replaced by personal values in a trend known as secularization, reducing societal pressure to marry for sex or childbearing, as fewer people engage in organized religion.
Divorce?
Divorce was largely inaccessible for most people until the 1940s, due to legal costs and social stigma, remaining difficult until the 1970s. The recent decline in divorce rates correlates with falling marriage rates and increased cohabitation. Legal aid introduced in 1949 and the Divorce Reform Act of 1971 made divorce more affordable and accessible, with further amendments in 1984 and 1996 benefiting women seeking to leave unsatisfactory marriages.
The New Right critiques argue that divorce has become too easy, fostering casual attitudes toward marriage. Social perceptions of divorce have shifted; it was once a source of shame until the 1960s, a change linked to secularization. Wilson (1996) noted that as religious influence waned, so did the belief in the necessity of marriage. Fletcher (1996) observed that expectations for marriage have risen. Additionally, women’s increasing economic independence and the rise of feminism have led them to seek more from life than just marriage and domestic roles.
Cohabitation?
Social attitudes toward sex outside marriage have evolved, with more acceptance of cohabitation than extramarital or same-sex relationships. Coast (2009) found that cohabitation, defined as a sexual but non-married partnership, is increasingly viewed as a normal living arrangement rather than a trial marriage. Research indicates that teenagers now anticipate a period of cohabitation before marriage.
Morgan (2012) suggests that fear of divorce and economic pressures influence couples to cohabit instead of marrying immediately. Many couples prefer to wait until they are financially stable, with a 2013 survey by Seddons revealing that 16% of couples wanted to buy a house before marrying, and 40% felt they couldn’t afford a wedding. while 25% felt marriage was not necessary
Singlehood?
Older individuals, particularly women over 75, are most likely to live alone, often due to widowhood, as women generally live longer than men. There is also a growing number of younger people, particularly men, who are single due to divorce or choosing singlehood. Census data indicates that many men who lived alone in 1981 remained alone later in life.
Smith et al. (2005) and Chandler et al. (2004) suggest that most older individuals living alone will not cohabit again. Durkheim’s concept of the “cult of the individual” explains that as traditional lifestyles declined, personal fulfillment took precedence over community ties. Klinenburg (2012) notes that living alone is now viewed as a success among younger people. Social pressures that once kept unhappy couples together have diminished, allowing for more freedom to leave unsatisfactory relationships. Research indicates that those who have never married report similar happiness levels to married individuals and greater happiness than those who are widowed or divorced.
Life expectancy?
Life expectancy refers to the average duration individuals are expected to live, influenced by factors such as improved living standards, healthcare, education, and sanitation. While women generally live longer than men, the gap is narrowing due to lifestyle changes and the decline of hazardous male-dominated industries. Advances in medical technology, such as vaccinations, have increased survival rates for illnesses that were once fatal. Additionally, safer and cleaner homes, along with better sanitation and access to clean water, have significantly reduced health risks.
Fertility?
Fewer women are having children than in the past, largely due to improved contraception, which became reliable in the 1960s. This shift allowed women to choose when or if to have children, granting them greater independence and enabling them to pursue careers. As a result, women’s and children’s health improved, and attitudes toward reproduction changed. Influenced by feminism, women began demanding rights such as abortion and equal pay, leading to smaller, later families becoming more desirable for social and economic reasons. Women now expect more from life beyond domestic roles.
