Topic 3 - The Environment Flashcards
Explain “Learning”, “Behaviourism” and “Social Cognition”
- Learning: the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviour, including behaviour change, resulting from experience or practice.
- Behaviourism: learning is the result of observable acts and events, excluding mental processes.
- Social Cognition: learning includes not only changes in behaviour but also changes in thoughts, expectations & knowledge, that in turn influence behaviour in a reciprocal process
Explain “Conditioning” and the 2 types
(Classical and Operant)
Conditioning: a theory that states behaviour can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a response
- Classical Conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that triggers a response and, in turn, acquires the capacity to trigger a similar or related response.
- Operant Conditioning: the process by which a response becomes more likely or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences.
What are the 4 Classical Conditioning Elements
- Unconditioned Stimulus
- Unconditioned Response
- Conditioned Stimulus
- Conditioned Response
Explain the 5 Classical Conditioning Features.
(Generalisation, Discrimination, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery & Higher-Order)
- Generalisation: tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the CS to trigger similar response.
- Discrimination: learn to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli and respond differently.
- Extinction: extinguishing the CR by repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US.
- Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause.
- Higher-Order Conditioning: the CS is paired with new neutral stimulus creating a new (weaker) CS.
What is “Skinner “ in Operant Conditioning?
Skinner: American psychologist, developed a philosophy of science radical behaviourism.
Explain the 2 types of response cause by Skinner.
(Reinforcement & Punishment)
Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus/event strengthens the response, or makes it more likely to recur.
Punishment: the process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response, or makes it less likely to recur.
Explain the Primary and Secondary of reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus satisfying biological needs.
Secondary Reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.
Explain Positive and Negative of Reinforcement and Punishment
(Reinforcement increases a behaviour, Punishment decreases a behaviour)
Positive Reinforcement: increase in intensity of a pleasurable stimulus
Negative Reinforcement: removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus
Positive Punishment: something unpleasant follows the response
Negative Punishment: something pleasant is removed
Explain the 5 Operant Conditioning Features
(Generalisation, Discrimination, Extinction, Instinctive and Shaping)
- Generalisation: response reinforced (or punished) in presence of one stimulus occurs (or suppressed) in presence of similar stimuli.
- Discrimination: response occurs in presence of one stimulus but not in presence of similar ones that differ from it.
- Extinction: occurs when the behaviour is no longer followed by the consequence that reinforced it.
- Instinctive Drift: tendency to revert to instinctive behaviour.
- Shaping: reinforcing small steps, or each successive approximation until desired behaviour occurs.
Explain “Biological predisposition”, “Cognitive Learning Theory” and “Social cognitive learning theories”
Biological predisposition: biological constraints predispose organisms to learn
associations that enhance survival.
Cognitive Learning Theory: focuses on role of cognition (thought processes) on
learning.
Social cognitive learning theories: Importance of beliefs, perceptions and observations of other people’s behaviour in determining what we learn, what we do and the personality traits we develop.
Explain the 3 types of Cognitive Learning
(Latent, Insight and Learned Helplessness)
- Latent Learning: learning occurs but not shown until the person has a reason to demonstrate it.
- Insight Learning: all-of-a-sudden learning by understanding relationships of various parts of problem, rather than through trial and error.
- Learned Helplessness: tendency to fail to act due to past history of repeated failures.
Explain “Observational Learning” and the 4 elements of it.
Observational Learning: a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another rather than through direct experience.
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
Explain “Social psychology” and the 3 areas that is covered.
(Cognition, Influence and Interaction)
Social psychology: the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour are influenced by social groups.
- Social Cognition (Thinking): the ways in which people think about other people.
2.Social Influence: the ways in which a person’s behaviour can be affected by the presence of others.
3.Social Interaction (Relationships): the positive and negative aspects of people relating to others
Explain the 4 major factors affecting Social Influence.
(Conformity, Group Behaviour, Compliance and Obedience)
1.Conformity: Complying with Social Pressures: change in one’s opinions to match that of other people, as a result of real or imagined pressure from others. (Groupthink)
- Group Behaviour: Influence of a group on the behaviour of the individual.
3.Compliance : Doing what you are asked - A change in one’s behaviour requested by another person or group, often with no real authority or power.
- Obedience: Following Orders - a change in one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure .
What is an example of Extreme form of conformity and the 4 negative aspect?
Groupthink.
- illusion of invulnerability.
- self-censorship (lack of disagreement).
- pressure on skeptics to conform by members & leader.
- Illusion of unanimity (self-deception & insularity).
Explain the 5 Examples of Group Behaviour
(Group polarization, Social facilitation, Social impairment, Social loafing & Deindividuation)
- Group polarization: if a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions
- Social facilitation: Positive influence of others on performance if task perceived as easy
- Social impairment: Negative influence of others on performance if task perceived as difficult
- Social loafing: people do not work as hard when in a group than individually; easy to “hide” in a group
- Deindividuation: loss of awareness of one’s own individuality in groups or crowds.
Explain the 3 Compliance Techniques
(Foot-in-the-door, Door-in-the-face & Lowball Technique)
- Foot-in-the-Door Technique: initial small request acts as an opener for a bigger one
- Door-in-the-Face Technique: initial large request, when rejected, followed by smaller one.
- Lowball Technique: once commitment made, cost ↑
Explain “Social Cognition” and the 3 examples of “Social Thinking”
Social Cognition: how people think about other people and how those thoughts influence behaviour toward those people.
- Attitudes
- Impressions
- Attributes
Explain “ Attitude” and the 3 components.
(Affective, Behavioural & Cognitive)
Evaluations that predispose us to respond positively or negatively to people, objects, ideas, or situations.
- Affective (feelings: way you feel)
- Behavioural (response tendencies: what you do)
- Cognitive (beliefs: what you believe)
What are the 4 Factors influencing Attitude formation
- Experience
- Social Roles & Norms
3.Classical & Operant Conditioning - Observing people in environment
Explain “Cognitive Dissonance” and 3 methods to reduce it.
Cognitive dissonance: discomfort experienced when behaviour is inconsistent (conflicts) with personal cognitions.
- changing conflicting behaviour
- changing conflicting cognition
- developing new cognitions to justify behaviour
Explain “Attributes”, 2 types of Attribution formation (Situational and Dispositional) and “Fundamental Attribution Error”.
Attributions: Process by which we explain our own behaviour and the behaviour of others.
- Situational attribution: Cause of behaviour due to external factors
- Dispositional attribution: Cause of behaviour due to internal factors
Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate the influence of person’s internal (dispositional) characteristics on behaviour and underestimate the external (situational) factors
Social Interaction compromises of:
Antisocial Relations
* Prejudice & Discrimination
* Aggression
Prosocial Relations (socially desirable behaviour)
* Attraction
* Altruism
Explain “Prejudice” & “Discrimination”.
Prejudice: a prejudgement based on unsupported and negative stereotypes about members of a social group. (Beliefs, Emotions and Predisposition to action)
Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behaviour toward a group and its members due to prejudice.
