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Biology Paper 1 > Topic 3 Infection And Response > Flashcards

Topic 3 Infection And Response Flashcards

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1
Q

What is health?

A

The state of physical and mental well being

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2
Q

What does communicable mean?

A

Infectious - can be spread

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3
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Microorganisms that cause infectious disease

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4
Q

What are the 4 different types of pathogens?

A
  • viruses
  • protists
  • bacteria
  • fungi
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5
Q

How do bacteria make us ill?

A
  • reproduce rapidly inside the body
  • produce toxins (poisons) that damage tissues and make us feel ill
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6
Q

What are bacteria?

A

Very small living cells

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7
Q

What are viruses not?

A

Cells

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8
Q

How do viruses reproduce and make us ill?

A
  • live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage
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9
Q

What are the 5 ways pathogens are spread?

A
  • in the air
  • in water
  • by direct contact
  • by vectors
  • unhygienic food preparation
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10
Q

What are 4 ways the spread of pathogens can be reduced/prevented?

A
  • washing hands
  • using condoms
  • isolation
  • vaccines
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11
Q

What are 3 viral diseases?

A
  • measles
  • HIV
  • Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
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12
Q

What are the 2 symptoms of measles?

A
  • fever
  • red skin rash
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13
Q

How is measles spread?

A

By inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs

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14
Q

Why are most young children vaccinated against measles?

A

Can be fatal, if complications arise

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15
Q

What are the initial symptoms of HIV?

A

Flu-like illness

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16
Q

How is HIV spread?

A
  • Exchange of bodily fluids eg blood
  • Sexual contact
  • when drug users share needles
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17
Q

What is late stage HIV called?

A

AIDS

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18
Q

What can be used to treat HIV?

A

Antiretroviral drugs

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19
Q

What happens if HIV is left untreated?

A
  • attacks body’s immune cells
  • body’s immune system becomes badly damaged
  • cannot cope with other infections or cancers
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20
Q

What do antiretroviral drugs do to treat HIV?

A

Stop virus from multiplying in the body

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21
Q

What is an example of a species of plant TMV affects?

A

Tomatoes

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22
Q

What does TMV cause?

A

A mosaic pattern of discolouration on leaves

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23
Q

How does TMV affect plant growth?

A

Discolouration on leaves - lack of photosynthesis

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24
Q

What is salmonella?

A

type of bacteria causes food poisoning

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25
Q

What are the 4 symptoms of salmonella?

A
  • fever
  • stomach cramps
  • vomiting
  • diarrhoea
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26
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella caused by?

A

toxins the bacteria produce

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27
Q

How is salmonella spread?

A

by ingesting food contaminated with salmonella bacteria/prepared in unhygienic conditions

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28
Q

In the UK, how is the spread of salmonella controlled?

A

poultry are vaccinated against salmonella

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29
Q

What type of disease is gonorrhoea?

A

sexually transmitted (STD)

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30
Q

How is gonorrhoea spread?

A

sexual contact

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31
Q

What is gonorrhoea caused by?

A

bacteria

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32
Q

What are the 2 symptoms of gonorrhoea?

A
  • pain urinating
  • thick yellow or green discharge from vagina/penis
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33
Q

What was gonorrhoea originally treated with?

A

the antibiotic penicillin

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34
Q

Why is it now trickier to treat gonorrhoea?

A

many strains of bacteria have become resistant

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35
Q

What are 2 ways the spread of gonorrhoea can be controlled?

A
  • treatment with antibiotics
  • barrier methods of contraception (condoms)
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36
Q

What are 2 bacterial diseases?

A
  • gonorrhoea
  • salmonella
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37
Q

What are 2 bacterial diseases?

A
  • gonorrhoea
  • salmonella
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38
Q

What type of disease is rose black spot?

A

fungal

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39
Q

What does Rose black spot cause?

A
  • purple or black spots develop on leaves (of rose plants)
  • leaves turn yellow and drop off
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40
Q

How does Rose black spot affect plant growth?

A

reduced photosynthesis

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41
Q

How is Rose black spot spread?

A

in environment by water or wind

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42
Q

What are the 2 ways rose black spot can be treated?

A
  • using fungicides
  • removing and destroying affected leaves
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43
Q

What is malaria caused by?

A

protists

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44
Q

What does malaria cause?

A

repeating episodes of fever- can be fatal

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45
Q

What does malaria cause?

A

repeating episodes of fever- can be fatal

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46
Q

What are 2 ways the spread of malaria can be controlled?

A
  • preventing mosquitoes (vectors) from breeding
  • using mosquito nets
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47
Q

What does part of the malarial protists life cycle take place inside?

A

a mosquito

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48
Q

What are mosquitoes a type of?

A

vector

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49
Q

How do mosquitoes pick up the malarial protist?

A

when they feed on an infected animal

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50
Q

How do mosquitoes infect other animals/people with malaria?

A

by inserting the protist into animal/person (its feeding on) blood vessels

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51
Q

What are the 5 non-specific defence systems of the human body against pathogens?

A
  • skin
  • nose
  • trachea and bronchi
  • stomach
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52
Q

What are the 2 ways skin acts as a defence system against pathogens?

A
  • physical barrier to pathogens
  • secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens
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53
Q

How does the nose act as a defence system against pathogens?

A

Hairs and mucus trap particles that could contain pathogens

54
Q

What are the 2 ways trachea and bronchi act as defence systems against pathogens?

A
  • secrete mucus to trap pathogens
  • cilia waft mucus up to back of throat where it can be swallowed
55
Q

What are cilia?

A

Hair-like structures that line the trachea and bronchi

56
Q

How does the stomach act as a defence system against pathogens?

A

produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens

57
Q

What is the role of the immune system?

A

To destroy pathogens if a pathogens enter the body

58
Q

What is the most important part of the immune system?

A

White blood cells

59
Q

What are the 3 ways white blood cells defend against pathogens?

A
  • phagocytosis
  • producing antibodies
  • producing antitoxins
60
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

White blood cells engulf foreign cells (pathogens) and digest them

61
Q

What are antigens?

A

Proteins on the surface of pathogens

62
Q

What type of white blood cell engulfs pathogens?

A

Phagocytes

63
Q

What type of white blood cell produces antibodies and antitoxins?

A

Lymphocytes

64
Q

When do lymphocytes produce antibodies?

A

When they detect foreign (not naturally occurring in body) antigens

65
Q

How do antibodies work?

A

They lock onto pathogens and cause them to stick together so that they can be found and destroyed by phagocytes

66
Q

What happens if a person is infected with the same pathogen again?

A

White blood cells will rapidly produce antibodies to kill it- person is naturally immune so won’t get ill

67
Q

How does the immune system respond to toxins released by bacteria?

A

Lymphocytes produce antitoxins which neutralise toxins

68
Q

Why are lymphocytes a specific defence system?

A

Antibodies and antitoxins they produce are specific to the type of antigen on the pathogen

69
Q

What is vaccination?

A

involves injecting small amounts of dead or inactive pathogen into body to stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies

70
Q

How do vaccinations prevent illness?

A

if same pathogen re-enters body (after vaccination), white blood cells can rapidly mass-produce antibodies to kill pathogen

71
Q

How can epidemics (big outbreaks of disease) be prevented using vaccination?

A

if large percentage of population is vaccinated- even people who aren’t vaccinated are unlikely to catch disease because fewer people are able to pass it on

72
Q

What are 2 cons of vaccination?

A
  • don’t always work
  • can react badly (rare)
73
Q

How do antibiotics help to cure bacterial disease?

A

kill infective bacteria inside body without killing your own body cells

74
Q

Why is it important that specific bacteria are treated with specific antibiotics?

A

different antibiotics kill different types of bacteria

75
Q

Why is it difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses?

A

viruses reproduce using your body cells- hard to destroy viruses without also damaging bodys tissues

76
Q

What has the use of antibiotics greatly reduced?

A

deaths from communicable bacterial diseases

77
Q

What were drugs traditionally extracted from?

A

plants and microorganisms

78
Q

What do plants produce that can be used as drugs to treat human diseases?

A

a variety of chemicals to defend themselves against pests and pathogens

79
Q

Which drug was developed from foxgloves?

A

digitalis (heart drug)

80
Q

what was the painkiller aspirin developed from?

A

willow

81
Q

How was penicillin discovered?

A

Alexander Fleming found penicillium mould on a petri dish was producing a substance (penicillin) that killed bacteria

82
Q

How are drugs developed nowadays?

A

synthesised by chemists in
pharmaceutical industry, starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant

83
Q

What is the first stage of drug testing?

A

preclinical testing- drugs tested on human cells and tissues in lab

84
Q

What is the second stage of drug testing?

A

preclinical testing- test drug on live animals

85
Q

What are the 3 things new drugs are tested for in the second stage?

A
  • its efficacy
  • its toxicity
  • best dosage
86
Q

What is efficacy?

A

whether drug works and produces effects your looking for

87
Q

What is toxicity?

A

how harmful is drug

88
Q

What is the best dosage?

A

concentration of drug that should be given and how often it should be given

89
Q

What is the law in Britain about testing new drugs on animals?

A

any new drug must be tested on two different live mammals

90
Q

What is the third stage of drug testing?

A

clinical trials- testing on healthy volunteers and then patients

91
Q

What happens first in clinical trials?

A
  • drug tested on healthy volunteers
  • very low dose given and then gradually increased
92
Q

What happens next in clinical trials if the drug is found to be safe after tests on healthy volunteers?

A
  • drug is tested on patients (people suffered from the illness)
  • optimum dose is found
93
Q

What happens last in clinical trials?

A

double blind trials

94
Q

What happens last in clinical trials?

A

double blind trials

95
Q

What happens in a double blind trial?

A

patients are randomly put into 2 groups- one is given new drug, other is given placebo

96
Q

What is a placebo?

A

substance like drug being tested but doesn’t do anything

97
Q

What is the placebo effect?

A

patient expects treatment to work so feels better, eventhough treatment isn’t doing anything

98
Q

What does double-blind mean?

A

neither patient nor doctor knows who’s getting drug or placebo

99
Q

What has to happen before the results of a drug testing and trials can be published?

A

scrutiny by peer review- helps prevent false claims

100
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Proteins produced by lymphocytes

101
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Identical copies of one type of antibody

102
Q

What is the first step in producing monoclonal antibodies?

A

Injecting mouse with chosen antigen

103
Q

What is the second step in producing monoclonal antibodies?

A

B-lymphocytes are taken from mouse

104
Q

What does injecting a mouse with an antigen do?

A

Stimulates mouse lymphocytes to make particular antibody

105
Q

What is the third step in producing monoclonal antibodies?

A

B-lymphocyte from mouse fused with a tumour cell to make a hybridoma cell

106
Q

How is a hydridoma cell created?

A

By fusing a lymphocyte with a tumour cell

107
Q

What can a hybridoma cell do?

A

Divide and make antibody

108
Q

What is the fourth step in producing monoclonal antibodies?

A

Hybridoma cells cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce same antibody

109
Q

What can be done with the monoclonal antibodies once they are produced?

A

Large amount of antibody can be collected and purified

110
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies useful?

A

target specific cell/chemical in body, specific to one binding site on one protein antigen

111
Q

What are 4 uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • diagnosis eg pregnancy tests
  • treat diseases
  • research to find specific substances
  • in laboratories
112
Q

what can 2 things can plants be infected by?

A

viral, bacterial, fungal pathogens
insects

113
Q

what is an example of an insect that can cause damage to plants?

A

aphids

114
Q

what are 7 signs of plant diseases?

A

stunted growth
spots on leaves
patches of decay (rot)
abnormal growths
malformed stems/leaves
discolouration
presence of pests

115
Q

what are the 3 ways plant disease can be identified?

A

reference to gardening manual/website
take infected plant to lab, Identify pathogen
use testing kits contain monoclonal antibodies

116
Q

what does nitrate deficiency in a plant cause?

A

stunted growth

117
Q

what does magnesium deficiency in a plant cause?

A

chlorosis, yellow leaves

118
Q

What do plants need nitrates for?

A

Protein synthesis- growth

119
Q

What do plants need magnesium ions for?

A

Make chlorophyll

120
Q

What are the 3 types of defences plants have?

A

Physical
Chemical
Mechanical

121
Q

Why do plants have physical defence responses?

A

Barrier against pathogens entering

122
Q

What are 3 physical defences of a plant?

A

Cellulose cell walls
Waxy cuticle on leaves
Layers of dead cells around stems (bark)

123
Q

What are 2 chemical defences of plants?

A

Produce antibacterial chemicals
Poisons to deter herbivores

124
Q

What are 3 mechanical defences of plants?

A

Thorns/hairs deter animals
Leaves droop/curl when touched
Mimicry to trick animals

125
Q

What are 4 uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Diagnosis (pregnancy tests)
In labs
In research
Treat diseases

126
Q

What are 2 uses of monoclonal antibodies in laboratories?

A

Bind to hormones/chemicals in blood to measure levels
Detect pathogens

127
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used in research?

A

Locate specific molecules by binding antibodies with fluorescent dye

128
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to treat cancer?

A

Monoclonal antibodies bound to anti-cancer drug (radioactive substance/toxic drug/chemical)
Kills cancer cells without harming other body cells

129
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies not as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed?

A

Create more side effects than expected

130
Q

What are 3 side effects monoclonal antibodies can cause?

A

Vomiting
Fever
Low blood pressure

131
Q

Why did scientists originally think monoclonal antibodies wouldn’t create a lot of side effects?

A

Target very specific cell/molecule

Biology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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