Topic 3 Infection And Response Flashcards
1
Q
What is health?
A
The state of physical and mental well being
2
Q
What does communicable mean?
A
Infectious - can be spread
3
Q
What are pathogens?
A
Microorganisms that cause infectious disease
4
Q
What are the 4 different types of pathogens?
A
- viruses
- protists
- bacteria
- fungi
5
Q
How do bacteria make us ill?
A
- reproduce rapidly inside the body
- produce toxins (poisons) that damage tissues and make us feel ill
6
Q
What are bacteria?
A
Very small living cells
7
Q
What are viruses not?
A
Cells
8
Q
How do viruses reproduce and make us ill?
A
- live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage
9
Q
What are the 5 ways pathogens are spread?
A
- in the air
- in water
- by direct contact
- by vectors
- unhygienic food preparation
10
Q
What are 4 ways the spread of pathogens can be reduced/prevented?
A
- washing hands
- using condoms
- isolation
- vaccines
11
Q
What are 3 viral diseases?
A
- measles
- HIV
- Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
12
Q
What are the 2 symptoms of measles?
A
- fever
- red skin rash
13
Q
How is measles spread?
A
By inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs
14
Q
Why are most young children vaccinated against measles?
A
Can be fatal, if complications arise
15
Q
What are the initial symptoms of HIV?
A
Flu-like illness
16
Q
How is HIV spread?
A
- Exchange of bodily fluids eg blood
- Sexual contact
- when drug users share needles
17
Q
What is late stage HIV called?
A
AIDS
18
Q
What can be used to treat HIV?
A
Antiretroviral drugs
19
Q
What happens if HIV is left untreated?
A
- attacks body’s immune cells
- body’s immune system becomes badly damaged
- cannot cope with other infections or cancers
20
Q
What do antiretroviral drugs do to treat HIV?
A
Stop virus from multiplying in the body
21
Q
What is an example of a species of plant TMV affects?
A
Tomatoes
22
Q
What does TMV cause?
A
A mosaic pattern of discolouration on leaves
23
Q
How does TMV affect plant growth?
A
Discolouration on leaves - lack of photosynthesis
24
Q
What is salmonella?
A
type of bacteria causes food poisoning
25
What are the **4 symptoms** of **salmonella**?
- **fever**
- **stomach cramps**
- **vomiting**
- **diarrhoea**
26
What are the **symptoms** of **salmonella caused by**?
**toxins** the **bacteria produce**
27
How is **salmonella spread**?
by **ingesting food contaminated** with **salmonella bacteria**/**prepared** in **unhygienic conditions**
28
In the UK, how is the **spread** of **salmonella controlled**?
**poultry** are **vaccinated** against salmonella
29
What **type** of **disease** is **gonorrhoea**?
**sexually transmitted** (STD)
30
How is **gonorrhoea spread**?
**sexual contact**
31
What is **gonorrhoea caused by**?
**bacteria**
32
What are the **2 symptoms** of **gonorrhoea**?
- **pain urinating**
- **thick yellow or green discharge** from **vagina/penis**
33
What was **gonorrhoea originally treated with**?
the **antibiotic penicillin**
34
Why is it now **trickier** to **treat gonorrhoea**?
many **strains of bacteria** have become **resistant**
35
What are **2 ways** the **spread** of **gonorrhoea** can be **controlled**?
- **treatment** with **antibiotics**
- **barrier methods** of **contraception** (condoms)
36
What are **2 bacterial diseases**?
- **gonorrhoea**
- **salmonella**
37
What are **2 bacterial diseases**?
- **gonorrhoea**
- **salmonella**
38
What **type** of **disease** is **rose black spot**?
**fungal**
39
What does **Rose black spot cause**?
- **purple or black spots** develop on **leaves** (of rose plants)
- **leaves turn yellow** and **drop off**
40
How does **Rose black spot affect plant growth**?
**reduced photosynthesis**
41
How is **Rose black spot spread**?
in **environment** by **water or wind**
42
What are the **2 ways rose black spot** can be **treated**?
- using **fungicides**
- **removing** and **destroying affected leaves**
43
What is **malaria caused by**?
**protists**
44
What does **malaria cause**?
**repeating episodes** of **fever**- can be **fatal**
45
What does **malaria cause**?
**repeating episodes** of **fever**- can be **fatal**
46
What are **2 ways** the **spread** of **malaria** can be **controlled**?
- **preventing mosquitoes** (vectors) from **breeding**
- using **mosquito nets**
47
What does **part** of the **malarial protists life cycle** take place **inside**?
a **mosquito**
48
What are **mosquitoes** a **type of**?
**vector**
49
How do **mosquitoes pick up** the **malarial protist**?
when they **feed on** an **infected animal**
50
How do **mosquitoes infect** other **animals/people** with **malaria**?
by **inserting** the **protist** into **animal/person** (its feeding on) **blood vessels**
51
What are the **5 non-specific defence systems** of the **human body against pathogens**?
- **skin**
- **nose**
- **trachea** and **bronchi**
- **stomach**
52
What are the **2 ways skin** acts as a **defence system against pathogens**?
- **physical barrier** to pathogens
- **secretes antimicrobial substances** which **kill pathogens**
53
How does the **nose** act as a **defence system against pathogens**?
**Hairs and mucus trap particles** that could **contain pathogens**
54
What are the **2 ways trachea and bronchi** act as **defence systems against pathogens**?
- **secrete mucus** to **trap pathogens**
- **cilia waft mucus up to back of throat** where it can be **swallowed**
55
What are **cilia**?
**Hair-like structures** that **line** the **trachea and bronchi**
56
How does the **stomach** act as a **defence system against pathogens**?
**produces hydrochloric acid** which **kills pathogens**
57
What is the **role** of the **immune system**?
To **destroy pathogens** if a **pathogens enter the body**
58
What is the **most important part** of the **immune system**?
**White blood cells**
59
What are the **3 ways white blood cells defend against pathogens**?
- **phagocytosis**
- **producing antibodies**
- **producing antitoxins**
60
What is **phagocytosis**?
**White blood cells engulf foreign cells** (pathogens) and **digest** them
61
What are **antigens**?
**Proteins** on the **surface** of **pathogens**
62
What **type of white blood cell engulfs pathogens**?
**Phagocytes**
63
What **type of white blood cell produces antibodies and antitoxins**?
**Lymphocytes**
64
When do **lymphocytes produce antibodies**?
When they **detect foreign** (not naturally occurring in body) **antigens**
65
How do **antibodies work**?
They **lock onto pathogens** and cause them to **stick together** so that they can be **found** and **destroyed** by **phagocytes**
66
What happens if a **person** is **infected** with the **same pathogen again**?
**White blood cells** will **rapidly produce antibodies** to kill it- person is naturally **immune** so won’t get ill
67
How does the **immune system respond** to **toxins released by bacteria**?
**Lymphocytes produce antitoxins** which **neutralise toxins**
68
Why are **lymphocytes** a **specific defence system**?
**Antibodies** and **antitoxins** they **produce** are **specific** to the **type of antigen** on the **pathogen**
69
What is **vaccination**?
involves **injecting small amounts** of **dead or inactive pathogen** into **body** to **stimulate white blood cells** to **produce antibodies**
70
How do **vaccinations prevent illness**?
if **same pathogen re-enters body** (after vaccination), **white blood cells** can **rapidly mass-produce antibodies** to **kill pathogen**
71
How can **epidemics (big outbreaks of disease)** be **prevented using vaccination**?
if **large percentage** of **population** is **vaccinated**- **even people who aren't vaccinated** are **unlikely** to **catch disease** because **fewer people** are **able to pass it on**
72
What are **2 cons** of **vaccination**?
- **don't always work**
- **can react badly (rare)**
73
How do **antibiotics** help to **cure bacterial disease**?
**kill infective bacteria inside body without killing** your own **body cells**
74
Why is it **important** that **specific bacteria** are **treated** with **specific antibiotics**?
**different antibiotics kill different types of bacteria**
75
Why is it **difficult** to **develop drugs** that **kill viruses**?
**viruses reproduce** using your **body cells**- **hard** to **destroy viruses** without also **damaging bodys tissues**
76
What has the **use** of **antibiotics greatly reduced**?
**deaths** from **communicable bacterial diseases**
77
What were **drugs traditionally extracted from**?
**plants** and **microorganisms**
78
What do **plants produce** that can be used as **drugs** to **treat human diseases**?
a **variety of chemicals** to **defend themselves against pests and pathogens**
79
Which **drug** was **developed from foxgloves**?
**digitalis (heart drug)**
80
what was the **painkiller aspirin developed from**?
**willow**
81
How was **penicillin discovered**?
**Alexander Fleming** found **penicillium mould** on a petri dish was **producing** a **substance (penicillin)** that **killed bacteria**
82
How are **drugs developed nowadays**?
**synthesised by chemists** in
**pharmaceutical industry**, **starting point** may still be a **chemical extracted from a plant**
83
What is the **first stage** of **drug testing**?
**preclinical testing- drugs tested on human cells** and **tissues** in **lab**
84
What is the **second stage** of **drug testing**?
**preclinical testing- test drug** on **live animals**
85
What are the **3 things new drugs** are **tested for** in the **second stage**?
- its **efficacy**
- its **toxicity**
- best **dosage**
86
What is **efficacy**?
whether **drug works** and **produces effects your looking for**
87
What is **toxicity**?
how **harmful** is **drug**
88
What is the **best dosage**?
**concentration** of drug that **should be given** and **how often** it **should be given**
89
What is the **law** in **Britain** about **testing new drugs on animals**?
any **new drug** must be **tested on two different live mammals**
90
What is the **third stage** of **drug testing**?
**clinical trials- testing on healthy volunteers** and then **patients**
91
What **happens first** in **clinical trials**?
- **drug tested** on **healthy volunteers**
- **very low dose** given and then **gradually increased**
92
What **happens next** in **clinical trials** if the **drug** is found to be **safe after tests on healthy volunteers**?
- **drug** is **tested** on **patients (people suffered from the illness)**
- **optimum dose** is **found**
93
What **happens last** in **clinical trials**?
**double blind trials**
94
What **happens last** in **clinical trials**?
**double blind trials**
95
What **happens** in a **double blind trial**?
**patients** are **randomly** put into **2 groups**- **one** is **given new drug**, **other** is **given placebo**
96
What is a **placebo**?
**substance like drug being tested** but **doesn't do anything**
97
What is the **placebo effect**?
**patient expects treatment to work** so **feels better**, eventhough **treatment isn't doing anything**
98
What does **double-blind mean**?
**neither patient nor doctor knows** who's getting **drug** or **placebo**
99
What **has to happen before** the **results** of a **drug testing and trials can be published**?
**scrutiny by peer review**- helps **prevent false claims**
100
What are **antibodies**?
**Proteins produced by lymphocytes**
101
What are **monoclonal antibodies**?
**Identical copies** of **one type** of **antibody**
102
What is the **first step** in **producing monoclonal antibodies**?
**Injecting mouse** with **chosen antigen**
103
What is the **second step** in **producing monoclonal antibodies**?
**B-lymphocytes** are **taken** from **mouse**
104
What does **injecting** a **mouse** with an **antigen** do?
**Stimulates mouse lymphocytes** to **make particular antibody**
105
What is the **third step** in **producing monoclonal antibodies**?
**B-lymphocyte** from **mouse fused** with a **tumour cell** to make a **hybridoma cell**
106
How is a **hydridoma cell created**?
By **fusing** a **lymphocyte** with a **tumour cell**
107
What can a **hybridoma cell do**?
**Divide** and **make antibody**
108
What is the **fourth step** in **producing monoclonal antibodies**?
**Hybridoma cells cloned** to **produce many identical cells** that all **produce same antibody**
109
What **can be done** with the **monoclonal antibodies once they are produced**?
**Large amount of antibody** can be **collected** and **purified**
110
Why are **monoclonal antibodies useful**?
**target specific cell/chemical** in **body, specific to one binding site** on **one protein antigen**
111
What are **4 uses** of **monoclonal antibodies**?
- **diagnosis** eg **pregnancy tests**
- **treat diseases**
- **research** to **find specific substances**
- in **laboratories**
112
what can **2 things** can **plants be infected by**?
viral, bacterial, fungal **pathogens**
**insects**
113
what is an **example** of an **insect** that can cause **damage to plants**?
**aphids**
114
what are **7 signs** of **plant diseases**?
**stunted growth**
**spots on leaves**
**patches of decay (rot)**
**abnormal growths**
**malformed stems/leaves**
**discolouration**
**presence of pests**
115
what are the **3 ways plant disease** can be **identified**?
**reference** to **gardening manual/website**
**take infected plant to lab, Identify pathogen**
use **testing kits** contain **monoclonal antibodies**
116
what does **nitrate deficiency** in a **plant cause**?
**stunted growth**
117
what does **magnesium deficiency** in a **plant cause**?
**chlorosis, yellow leaves**
118
What do **plants need nitrates for**?
**Protein synthesis- growth**
119
What do **plants need magnesium ions for**?
**Make chlorophyll**
120
What are the **3 types of defences plants have**?
**Physical**
**Chemical**
**Mechanical**
121
Why do **plants have physical defence responses**?
**Barrier against pathogens entering**
122
What are **3 physical defences of a plant**?
**Cellulose cell walls**
**Waxy cuticle** on **leaves**
**Layers** of **dead cells** around **stems (bark)**
123
What are **2 chemical defences of plants**?
Produce **antibacterial chemicals**
**Poisons** to **deter herbivores**
124
What are **3 mechanical defences of plants**?
**Thorns/hairs deter animals**
**Leaves droop/curl** when **touched**
**Mimicry** to **trick animals**
125
What are **4 uses** of **monoclonal antibodies**?
**Diagnosis (pregnancy tests)**
In **labs**
In **research**
**Treat diseases**
126
What are **2 uses** of **monoclonal antibodies in laboratories**?
**Bind** to **hormones/chemicals** in **blood** to **measure levels**
**Detect pathogens**
127
How can **monoclonal antibodies** be **used in research**?
**Locate specific molecules** by **binding antibodies** with **fluorescent dye**
128
How can **monoclonal antibodies** be used to **treat cancer**?
**Monoclonal antibodies bound** to **anti-cancer drug (radioactive substance/toxic drug/chemical)**
**Kills cancer cells without harming other body cells**
129
Why are **monoclonal antibodies not as widely used** as **everyone hoped** when they were **first developed**?
Create more **side effects** than expected
130
What are **3 side effects monoclonal antibodies can cause**?
**Vomiting**
**Fever**
**Low blood pressure**
131
Why did **scientists originally think monoclonal antibodies** wouldn’t create a lot of **side effects**?
**Target very specific cell/molecule**
