topic 3 Flashcards
- Discuss the key components of epidemiology (population and frequency, distribution, determinants, and control of disease).
Populations: Population refers to a group of people with a common characteristic, such as place of residence, gender, age, or use of certain medical services.
Disease frequency refers to quantifying how often a disease arises in a population. Counting, which is a key activity of epidemiologists, includes three steps: (1) developing a definition of disease, (2) instituting a mechanism for counting cases of disease within a specified population, and (3) determining the size of that population.
Disease distribution refers to the analysis of disease patterns according to the characteristics of person, place, and time.
* Who is getting the disease,
* Where it is occurring,
* How it is changing over time.
Disease determinants are factors that bring about a change in a person’s health or make a difference in a person’s health.
Individual determinants consist of a person’s genetic makeup, gender, age, immunity level, diet, behaviors, and existing diseases.
Environmental and societal determinants are external to the individual and encompass a wide range of natural, social, and economic events and conditions.
Disease control is the ultimate aim of epidemiology and refers to the reduction or elimination of disease occurrence. It is accomplished through epidemiological research and surveillance.
what are the different primary tissue types in the body
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nervous tissue
what is connective tissue and describe the types of connective tissue
Tissue that joins one body component to another is called connective tissue.
- Bone is actually one type of connective tissue (called supportive connective tissue). Other types of connective tissue help bones stay connected and act over the bones (Marieb, 2012).
Some other connective tissues in our skeletal system are:
- Ligaments, which join bone-to-bone, acting like a ‘hinge’ for the joint. Think of ligaments as strong wire or cables that are not very elastic. Their role is to provide joint stability. Usually they are a very whitish colour as they have a reduced blood supply (Marieb, 2012; Seeley et al., 2014).
- Tendons, which join muscle to bone. Tendons allow muscles to act upon a bone when the muscle action contracts to shorten (concentric) or lengthen (eccentric). Tendons are more ‘elastic’ than ligaments to absorb and store energy. Usually a cream colour, as they have a better blood supply than ligaments, but not as much as muscle.
- Cartilage, which protects joint surfaces, and some types produce lubricating fluid etc.
*name the major bones within the human body.
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Tibia
Femur
Patella
- Differentiate between the axial and the appendicular skeleton
The axial skeleton is made up of the “core” bones of the body: Skull, spine and ribs
The appendicular skeleton is made up of the ‘appendages’ that connect to the axial skeleton. It is made up of the arms and legs as well as the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and pelvic girdle
- Understand the main types of joints in the body concentrating on synovial joints.
Hinge joint
Two bones that are held together by ligaments to form the hinge like a door hinge
Ball and socket joint
As the name suggests, the ball of one bone fits into the socket made by another bone.
Saddle Joint
As name suggests- like a saddle upside down on top of a curved bone
+ synovial
describe and label the synovial joint
The joints in our bodies allowing the most movement are synovial joints. The have a capsule that encases the joint and contains synovial fluid (Seeley et al., 2014). This fluid acts as a lubricant for the joint to reduce friction between the two bones moving. Physical pressure from the bones assists our synovial membrane to produce this fluid. The synovial membrane does not cover the articular cartilage.
refer to image to label
what are the 5 categories of bone
- Long bones – e.g.) the femur or humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula and phalanges! A definition of a long bone is that it is longer than it is wide.
- Short bones - Are rough and cube like in structure, they consist mainly of spongy bone with compact bone making up the surface layer. They are found in the bones of the wrist (carpal bones) and ankle (tarsal bones)
- . Flat bones – the scapula or shoulder blade - These bones are flat, thin and usually slightly curved. They consist of a spongy bone inner structure, with an outer parallel compact bony surface. Examples include most bones of the skull, the breastbone and the ribs (Seeley, VanPutte, Regan & Russo, 2014).
- Irregular bones – Are those bones that do not match any of the previous bone descriptions. They include the spinal vertebrae and the bones of the pelvis.
- Sesamoid bones – bones that form in tendons, the patella or kneecap
- Describe the structure of a long bone and its components.
refer to image to label
The Diaphysis is the shaft of the bone which makes up the tubular long or sagittal axis of the long bone. It is very strong due to collagen present in the compact bone. The compact bone surrounds the medullary cavity.
The Epiphysis is the rounded end that articulates (move) with the end of another bone to form a bony joint. The epiphyses (plural) are located at the proximal and distal ends of each long bone and contain spongy bone (which contains red bone marrow). They also contain the epiphyseal plate (also known as the “growth plate” in children’s bones) or epiphyseal line (in adult bones). The surface of each epiphysis is covered by articular hyaline cartilage.
It is at the epiphyseal plate where most of the long bone growth occurs. Hence, the more complex nature of a fracture at this point in a child, as this can interfere with normal bone growth. The epiphyseal line is the ‘grown up’ version of the epiphyseal plate in an adult bone.
The articular cartilage (or surface) is the smooth shiny ends of the long bone that has the visual appearance of a frosted light bulb when freshly exposed. They are smooth to reduce friction as these parts rub (articulate/move) against the articular cartilage on another bone. For example the lower part of the upper leg bone (the femur) rests and moves over the top of the lower leg bone (the tibia)(Marieb, 2012).
Articular cartilage provides support, flexibility and resilience. It cushions each epiphysis and absorbs compressive forces placed upon the bone, including the forces of gravity.
At the top end of the upper leg bone (femur) the smooth rounded articular cartilage that forms the ball called the head moves within a socket of articular cartilage called the acetabulum within in the hip bone.
Around the outer skin of the long bone is the periosteum. On real bones that are living or fresh, this looks like ‘gladwrap’ or cling film wrapping plastic wrapped around the bone. The periosteum is attached to the bone by strong collagen fibres called Sharpey’s fibres.
Periosteum is a double layered membrane (skin) that covers the entire long bone except over the epiphysis or bone ends. The outer layer of the periosteum is a dense connective tissue that allows for the attachment of tendons. The inner layer of the periosteum consists of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The periosteum is supplied with nerve fibres and blood vessels which allow for the diffusion of minerals into and out of the long bone. It is glistening white in colour and is visible to the human eye (Marieb, 2012).
The medullary cavity (sometimes called the medullary canal) is the hollow shaft of the long bone, but unlike birds, whose bones are filled with air to make the bone light, the hollow sections in human bones are filled up with bone marrow, which has two main functions. The red marrow produce blood cells through a process called haematopoiesis and the yellow marrow also is a store for fat.
what is the difference between yellow marrow and red marrow
Yellow Marrow is fat storage in long bones for the nutrition of bones and does not produce blood cells.
Red Marrow is haematopoietic tissue (i.e. produces red and white blood cells) found in spongy bone of long bones and the diploe of flat bones (e.g. the sternum). Haematopoiesis (blood cell formation) in adults occurs at the head of the femur and humerus, which is where bone marrow harvesting occurs for bone marrow transplants (Seeley, VanPutte, Regan & Russo, 2014).
what are the main functions of bone
Protection – The rib cage protects the internal organs. The skull protects the brain.
Shape – Bones give use the structural scaffold that gives the body its form.
Movement – By articulating with another bone, and being pulled by muscles, bones allow a wide variety of movement. From fine movement of fingers holding a paintbrush to large movements like walking.
Transfer sound – Bones conduct sound waves as vibrations in the inner ear.
Blood cell production – the red marrow in the produces all our blood cells through haematopoiesis.
Storage and release of various minerals, mainly calcium and phosphorus, growth factors etc as well as having a detoxification function. Bones can remove some heavy metals and store them .For example, lead accumulates mainly in bone, but the critical organs for lead poisoning are nervous system (brain), kidney, and bone marrow (Friberg et al., (1986) cited in Martiniakova et al., 2011.) So bone will absorb some heavy metals and thus protect other organs from damage, but prolonged exposure causes damage to the organs mentioned.
describe what Osteoclasts +osteo blasts do
Osteoblasts (think b for builder) are specialist bone cells that lay down new layers of bone. If a bone is fractured (broken), the body will send more osteoblast cells to where the fracture is. If the gap between the two bones is very close and kept immobile, the osteoblasts can bridge the gap and lay down a new layer of bone to make the bone strong again. This can take from six to eight weeks, depending on how large the fracture is.
osteoclasts: These are cells that break down (collapse or corrode) bone. This then allows the osteoblasts to come in and create a new layer of bone.
describe flexion, extension adduction, abduction, protraction, retraction, dorsi flexion, planter flexion, supination, pronation, medial rotation and lateral rotation with examples
Flexion: The angle between the two bones in the joint gets smaller, or the bones around the joint get closer to each other. Neck flexion (chin to chest)
Extension The angle between the two bones in the joint gets bigger, or the bones move further apart from each other.Neck, shoulder, elbow, hip, knee wrist and finger extension.
Adduction –
Movement towards the (midline) in the coronal plane .Bring the arms back down to your sides
Abduction –
Movement away from the (midline) in the coronal plane
From the anatomical position raise the arms out and up to the side.
Protraction This movement usually refers to the shoulder girdle (the shoulder blade or scapula) – but can include other bones (e.g. mandible of the jaw) – It is movement towards the front (anterior). It is pulling the shoulder blades forward so they are further away from each other. Think round the shoulders forward.
Retraction This movement usually refers to the shoulder girdle (the shoulder blade or scapula) – but can include other bones (e.g. mandible of the jaw) – it is movement towards the rear (posterior). Memory tip! When you “retract” a statement – you take it BACK. OR When a cat retracts its claws - it pulls them back in!
It is pulling the shoulder blades back so they are closer together.
Dorsiflexion An ankle movement, pulling the toes up towards the knee.Pulling the toes up towards the knee.
Plantar Flexion: An ankle movement, pointing the toes. An ankle movement, pointing the toes.
Supination :Usually referring to the wrist and hand.Turning your hand so the palm of the hand is facing the front (in the anatomical position).if your elbow is at 90° (from the anatomical position) and your palm is facing the floor, turning your hand so the palm is facing the ceiling is supination.
Pronation :Usually referring to the wrist and hand.Turning your hand so the palm of the hand is facing the back (in the anatomical position).If your elbow is at 90° (from the anatomical position) and your palm is facing the roof, turning your hand so the palm is facing the floor is pronation.
Medial (internal) rotation Refers to the shoulder and hip joint only.
Rotation of the long bone on its own axis internally or towards the midline. If elbow is in same position as above and tucked in to your side and you bring your forearm to touch your stomach (like closing a door) = shoulder internal rotation
Lateral (external) rotation Refers to the shoulder and hip joint only.
Rotation of the long bone on its own axis externally or away from the midline. Same as above but this time take your forearm away from your stomach (like opening a door) = shoulder external rotation
