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Biology Year 1 > Topic 2A- Cell Structure and Division + RP2 > Flashcards

Topic 2A- Cell Structure and Division + RP2 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe eukaryotic cells

A

complex
include plant and animal cells
also algae and fungi

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2
Q

Describe prokaryotic cells

A

small
simple
e.g. bacteria

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3
Q

Name three differences in structure between plant cells and animal cells

A
  • cellulose cell wall present in plant cell with plasmodesmata (channels for exchanging substances)
  • vacuole in plant cell (contains cell sap)
  • chloroplasts in plant cells
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4
Q

Describe the structure of algal cells

A

Similar to plant cells, same organelles including cell wall and chloroplasts

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5
Q

Describe the structure of fungi cells

A

Similar to plant cells, however, cell wall made of chitin, not cellulose
also don’t have chloroplasts

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6
Q

What is the cell-surface membrane made of?

A

mainly of lipids and protein

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7
Q

What is the function of the cell-surface membrane?

A

regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell
also has receptor molecules on it, which allow it to respond to chemicals like hormones

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8
Q

Describe the structure of the nucleus

A

large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane) which contains many pores
contains many chromosomes, and also a nucleolus

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9
Q

What is the function of the nucleus? (4)

A

control’s the cell’s activities, by controlling transcription of DNA
contains instructions on how to make proteins
pores allow substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
nucleolus makes ribosomes

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10
Q

Describe the structure of a mitochondria

A

oval shaped
double membrane- inner one folded to form structures called cristae
inside is the matrix that contains enzymes involved in respiration

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11
Q

Describe the function of mitochondria

A

site of aerobic respiration
where ATP is produced
found in large numbers in cells that are very active and require lots of energy

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12
Q

Describe the structure of a chloroplast

A

small, flattened structure
surrounded by double membrane
has membranes inside called thylakoid membranes
thylakoid membranes can be stacked up to from grana
grana are linked together by lamellae

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13
Q

Describe the function of chloroplasts

A

site of photosynthesis
some parts of photosynthesis happen in the grana, and other parts happen in the stroma(thick liquid found in the chloroplasts)

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14
Q

Describe the golgi apparatus

A

group of fluid filled, membrane bound flattened sacs
vesicles often seen at the edge of sacs

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15
Q

Describe the function of the golgi apparatus

A

processes and packages new lipids and proteins
also makes lysosomes

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16
Q

Describe the structure of the Golgi vesicle

A

small fluid- filled sac in the cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane

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17
Q

Describe the function of the golgi vesicle

A

stores lipids and proteins made by the golgi apparatus and transports them out of the cell

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18
Q

Describe the structure of a lysosome

A

a round organelle surrounded by a membrane
no clear internal structure

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19
Q

Describe the function of lysosomes

A

contains hydrolytic enzymes
these are kept separate from the cytoplasm by surrounding the membrane, and can be used to digest invading cells or to break down worn out components of the cell

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20
Q

Describe the structure of ribosomes

A

very small organelle either in cytoplasm or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
made up of proteins and RNA
not surrounded by membrane

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21
Q

Describe the function of ribosomes

A

site where proteins are made

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22
Q

Describe the structure of the RER

A

a system of membranes enclosing a fluid-filled space
surface covered with ribosomes

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23
Q

Describe the function of the RER

A

folds and processes proteins that have been made at the ribosomes

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24
Q

Describe the structure of the SER

A

a system of membranes enclosing a fluid-filled space
no ribosomes

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25
Describe the function of the SER
synthesises and processes lipids
26
Describe the structure of the cell wall
rigid structure that surrounds cells in plants, algae, and fungi made mainly of cellulose in fungi, made of chitin
27
Describe the function of the cell wall
supports the cells and prevents them from changing shape
28
Describe the structure of the cell vacuole
membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells contains cell sap (weak solution of sugar and salts) surrounding membrane called the tonoplast
29
Describe the function of the cell vacuole
helps to maintain the pressure inside the cell and keeps the cell rigid stops plants wilting involved in the isolation of unwanted chemicals inside the cell
30
What are epithelial cells specialised to do?
absorb food efficiently
31
How are epithelial cells adapted for their function?
lots of mitochondria folds on surface of cell called microvilli
32
What is a tissue?
a group of cells working together to perform a particular function
33
Give an example of how a cell can lead to an organ system
epithelial cell lots of them make epithelial tissue epithelial tissue, glandular tissue, muscular tissue make up the stomach (organ) stomach part of digestive system (organ system)
34
How is the cytoplasm in a prokaryotic cell different to a eukaryotic cell?
the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell has no membrane bound organelles (unlike eukaryotic cells) it has ribosomes but they're smaller than those in a eukaryotic cell
35
What is the cell wall made from in a prokaryotic cell?
a polymer called murein murein is a glycoprotein (protein with carbohydrate attached)
36
How can prokaryotic cells like bacteria protect themselves against attack from the immune system?
they can have a capsule made up of secreted slime, to protect the bacteria
37
What are plasmids?
small loops of DNA that aren't part of the circular DNA molecule
38
What do plasmids contain?
they contain genes for things like antibiotic resistance, and can be passed between prokaryotes
39
Where is DNA stored in a prokaryotic cell?
floating free in the cytoplasm, as circular DNA, its present as one long coiled up strand. its not attached to any histone proteins
40
What is the flagellum?
a long hair long structure that rotates to make the cell move
41
Name three things about prokaryotic cells that are different to eukaryotic cells
-flagellum - plasmids - no nucleus - no membrane bound organelles in the cytoplasm
42
What is the structure of viruses?
nucleic acids surrounded by protein viruses have no plasma membrane, no cytoplasm and no ribosomes genetic material core of either DNA or RNA protein coat around the core is called the capsid attachment proteins stick out from the edge of the capsid.
43
How do prokaryotic cells replicate?
binary fission
44
Describe the process of binary fission
1. the circular DNA and plasmid(s) replicate. the main DNA loop is replicated once, however plasmids can replicate lots 2. the cell gets bigger and the DNA loops move to opposite 'poles' of the cell 3. the cytoplasm begins to divide, and cell wall begins to form 4. the cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are produced. each daughter cell has one copy of the circular DNA, but can have a variable number of copies of the plasmid(s)
45
Describe how viruses replicate themselves
1. viruses use their attachment proteins to bind to complementary receptor proteins on the surface of host cells 2. different viruses have different attachment proteins and therefore require different receptor proteins on host cells. as a result, some viruses can only infect one type of cell 3. because they're not alive, viruses don't undergo cell division. Instead, they inject their DNA or RNA into the host cell, then use the cell to replicate the virus particles
46
Define magnification
how much bigger the image is than the specimen
47
What is the magnification equation?
I = A X M
48
What is resolution?
how detailed the image is, how well a microscope distinguishes between two points that are close together
49
What is the maximum resolution of an optical (light) microscope?
0.2 micrometers
50
Why is the resolution of light microscopes a problem?
you cant see organelles at all/ in a lot of detail
51
What is the max resolution of an electron microscope?
0.0002 micrometers
52
What is the maximum magnification of a light microscope?
x1500
53
What is the maximum magnification of an electron microscope?
x 1 500 000
54
How do TEMs work?
TEMs use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons, which is then transmitted through the specimen. Denser parts of the specimen absorb more electrons, which makes them look darker on the image you end up with.
55
Give one strength and one weakness of using TEMs
- high resolution, can see internal structures of organelles - only can be used on thin specimens
56
Describe how SEMs work
SEMs scan a beam of electrons across the specimen, which knocks off electrons from the specimen, which are gathered in a cathode ray tube to form an image. The images you get show the surface of the specimen, and can be 3D
57
Give one strength and one weakness of SEMs
- can be used on thick specimens - give lower resolution images than TEMs
58
Describe how to make a slide
1. pipette small amount of water on slide 2. place specimen on slide using tweezers 3. add drop of stain 4. add cover slip, try not to get air bubbles in it
59
What are stains used for when making a slide?
used to highlight objects in a cell
60
What are the three steps of cell fractionation?
homogenisation filtration ultracentrifugation
61
What does cell fractionation do?
separates organelles
62
Describe the first step of cell fractionation
homogenisation- breaking up the cells can be done by vibrating the cells, or using a blender this breaks up the plasma membrane and releases the organelles into solution the solution must be kept ice cold and isotonic a buffer solution should also be added to maintain pH
63
Why should the solution be kept ice cold and isotonic during homogenisation?
ice cold- to reduce the activity of enzymes that break down organelles isotonic- prevents damage to the organelles through osmosis
64
What does isotonic mean?
the solution should have the same concentration as the chemicals being broken down, no movement of water (osmosis)
65
Describe and explain the second step in cell fractionation
filtration- homogenised cell solution is filtered through a gauze to separate any large cell debris, or tissue debris
66
Describe the final stage of cell fractionation
1. pour cell fragments into a tube, and put into a centrifuge, and spin at low speed, pellet formed at the bottom, supernatant fluid above it 2. supernatant drained off and spun again, at higher speed 3. process repeated until all organelles separated out
67
In ultracentrifugation, what are the first organelles to form a pellet?
the heaviest organelles e.g. nuclei
68
Why is mitosis needed?
for growth of multicellular organisms and repairing damaged tissues
69
What are the 4 stages of the cell cycle?
1. mitosis 2. gap phase 1 3. synthesis 4. gap phase 2
70
What happens at gap phase 1?
cell grows and new organelles and proteins are made
71
What happens at synthesis?
the cell replicates its DNA
72
What happens at gap phase 2?
the cell keeps growing and proteins needed for cell division are made
73
What are the four stages of mitosis?
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
74
What is interphase?
The cell carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide. the cell's DNA is unravelled and replicated, to double its genetic content, the organelles are also replicated and ATP content is increased
75
What is the centromere?
the point on a chromosome where spindle fibres attach to pull sister chromatids apart during cell division
76
What are sister chromatids?
the two separate strands in a chromosome
77
Describe what happens in prophase
the chromosomes condense, getting shorter and fatter centrioles start moving to the opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of protein spindle fibres the nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm
78
What are centrioles?
tiny bundles of protein
79
Describe what happens in metaphase
the chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell and become attached to the spindle by the centromere
80
Describe what happens in anaphase
the centromeres divide, and sister chromatids separate the spindles contract, making the chromatids appear V shaped
81
Describe what happens in telophase
the chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle, they uncoil and become long and thin again. they're now called chromosomes again nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes division of the cytoplasm finishes, two daughter cells formed
82
What is cytokinesis?
division of the cytoplasm starts in anaphase, finishes in telophase
83
How can you calculate mitotic index?
no. of cells in mitosis/ total number of cell x 100
84
Describe how tumours are formed
if there's a mutation in a gene that controls cell division, cells can then grow out of control
85
What are the two types of tumour?
malignant benign
86
How does chemotherapy work?
it prevents the synthesis of enzymes needed for DNA replication, if these are produced the cell is unable to enter the synthesis phase (S)
87
How can radiation prevent DNA replication, and therefor stop cancer?
it can damage DNA, the cell is checked for damage to DNA several times in the cell cycle, and if damage is detected the cell will kill itself, preventing tumour growth
88
RP 2- Describe the method of investigating osmosis
1. 1cm from the tip of a growing root 2. put 1M hydrochloric acid in a boiling tube in a water bath at 60 C 3. transfer root tip into boiling tube and incubate for 5 mins 4. use a pipette to rinse the root tip well with cold water, leave to dry on paper towel 5. place root tip on slide and 2mm from the very tip of it 6. use a mounted needle to break the tip open and spread the cells out thinly 7. add a few drops of stain and leave it for a few mins 8. place cover slip over the cells and push down firmly to squash the tissue, this will make the tissue thinner and allow light to pass through it
89
RP 2- Why does it need to be the root where you cut from?
because that's where the growth occurs
90
RP 2- What temperature does the water bath need to be at for the hydrochloric acid?
60 C
91
RP 2- What chemical is put in the water bath?
1M hydrochloric acid
92
RP 2- Why do we use a stain?
to make the chromosomes easier to see
93
RP 2- What equation do we use to calculate the mitotic index?
no. of cell with visible chromosomes / total number of cells observed

Biology Year 1 (9 decks)

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