Topic 2: Sport Psychology

Question 1

Classification of Skills 1

Answer 1

Skills can be developed through practice. Understanding the different types of skill involved in a range of sports can help you determine the most appropriate strategies for improvement by identifying and using the best types of practice or guidance.

Question 2

Classifying Skills

Answer 2

Many different skills are used to take part in sport. If you know the classification of a skill, you can create an appropriate practice to improve it.
Some skills can be classified easily as they are at one end or the other of a continuum. However, many skills fall between the two ends of a continuum.
By thinking about the characteristics of each skill, you can place it at the right point along the continuum.

Question 3

What is a continuum?

Answer 3

A continuum is a line that goes between two extremes. Continua means more than one continuum.
You need to classify skills on the following three continua:
- Open —————————————– Closed
- Basic (simple) ———————————— Complex
- Low organisation ————————– High organisation

Question 4

Open skills

Answer 4

Open skills are those that are affected by the surrounding environment.
Extreme ‘open’ skills (at the far open end of the open-closed continuum) need to be constantly adapted by the performer to meet the requirements of the activity as situations change around them. Examples include:
○ a pass in hockey
○ dribbling in football
○ a rugby tackle.

To account for the opposition or positioning of team members, open skills need adapting as they are executed. For example, if a teammate moves further away from you, your lofted pass may need more weight. You adapt the skill to make sure your pass is still accurate and reaches your teammate.
With open skills, conditions are unstable and unlikely to be the same time the skill is performed.

Question 5

Closed skills

Answer 5

Closed skills are those that are not affected by the surrounding environment.
Extreme ‘closed’ skills (at the far closed end of the open-closed continuum) do not need to be adapted, because situations around the performer are stable. Examples include:
○ a penalty kick in football
○ a gymnastics vault
○ a tennis serve.
Closed skills have a more set pattern and can be pre-planned. Although there can still be opponents, the opponents do not directly interact during the execution of the skill. This reduced the need to make sudden changes.
With closed skills, the conditions are likely to be the same each time the skill is performed.

Question 6

Classification of Skills 2

Answer 6

You also need to know about the basic (simple) - complex continuum, and the low organisation - high organisation continuum. Remember: skills can be classified on any of the continua.

Question 7

Basic (simple) skills

Answer 7

Basic (simple) skills are those that:
○ are simple
○ require little thought
○ do not need much information to be processed
○ require little decision making.

Examples of skills at the extreme basic end of the continuum are:
○ running
○ cycling
○ swimming
○ chest pass.

Question 8

Complex skills

Answer 8

Complex skills are those that:
○ are difficult
○ require thought and concentration
○ require a lot of information to be processed
○ require a lot of decision making.

Examples of skills at the extreme complex end of the continuum are:
○ trying to dribble past defenders
○ rock climbing
○ passing the baton in a relay race
○ a lay up in basketball.

Question 9

Low Organisation Skills

Answer 9

Low organisation skills are those that:
○ are easy to do
○ have clear separate phases (making them easier to break down and practice).

Examples of skills at the extreme low organisation end of the continuum are:
○ a tennis serve
○ the triple jump in athletics.

Question 10

High Organisation Skills

Answer 10

High organisation skills are those that:
○ are harder to do
○ have phases that are not clearly broken down without affecting the skill (making them harder to practice).

Examples of skills at the extreme high organisation end of the continuum are:
○ tumbling in gymnastics
○ a golf swing.

Question 11

Masses and Distributed Practice

Answer 11

Practice is needed to get better at a skill. It is also important that practice is structured so that it is effective. You need to be able to select the most relevant practice structure to develop a skill. This will depend on the performer’s ability and the type of skill.

Question 12

Massed Practice

Answer 12

Massed practice is when there are little or no breaks in a session. The same skill is repeated over and over again, for example, 30 minutes of forehand drives in tennis.

Advantage:
- The correct movement pattern is grooved (getting the feel of the skill) so it is repeated next time.

Disadvantages:
- This type of practice can be boring.
- It can also be tiring, leading to errors and potentially accidents.

Question 13

When massed practice is used

Answer 13

Massed practice is used:
- when the performer is:
○ experienced/skilled/motivated
○ older (less likely to get bored)
○ very fit

• when the skill is:
  ○ simple
  ○ closed
  ○ low organisation
  ○ not dangerous.

Question 14

Distributed Practice

Answer 14

Distributed practice is when there are breaks in the session providing rest periods or changes of activity. There are fewer repetitions and several skills can be practiced rather than just one.

Advantages:
- The performer doesn’t get too tired.
- It prevents boredom/keeps motivation high.

Disadvantage:
- The performer may not gain the skill in the time allowed, therefore taking longer to learn the skill.

Question 15

When distributed practice is used:

Answer 15

Distributed practice is used:
- when the performer is:
○ a beginner/not very skilled
○ not very fit

• when the skill is:
  ○ complex
  ○ open
  ○ high organisation
  ○ dangerous.

Example: five attempts at kicking the rugby ball at the posts, then rest and receive feedback from coach while another player has their turn.

Question 16

Fixed and Variable Practice

Answer 16

Practice is needed to get better at a skill. It is also important that practice is structured so that it is effective. You need to be able to select the most relevant practice structure to develop a skill. This will depend on the performer’s ability and the type of skill.

Question 17

Fixed Practice

Answer 17

Fixed practice is when the whole movement of a skill is repeatedly practiced in the same way so it becomes well learned. The skill is not broken down in to smaller parts.

Question 18

When fixed practice is used

Answer 18

Fixed practice is used:
○ when the sport is mainly made up of closed skills. The performer practices in a situation as similar to the performance situation as possible.

During fixed practice:
○ the situation does not change
○ the routine is repeated and ‘grooved’ until it becomes automatic
○ the equipment stays the same.

Question 19

Variable Practice

Answer 19

Variable practice is when the same skill is repeated in different situations.
Learning the skills in different situations means that when different situations arise during performance, the performer already has experience of them.

Question 20

When variable practice is used

Answer 20

Variable practice is used:
○ when a sport is mainly made up of open skills because the situation is often changing.

The level of difficulty of the skill can be gradually increased so the performer becomes able to complete the same skill in more challenging situations.
For example, the performer could start by practising the skill in isolation, then bring in an opponent so it is a 1 : 1 situation, then bring in two opponents so it is 2 : 1. Each time the focus is on the same skill.

Question 21

Values of Goal Setting 1

Answer 21

You need to know the value of goal setting to improve and/or optimise performance in sport and physical activity. Remember that it is also important to review targets you have completed, so that you can see whether they were successful and use the results to set new targets.

Question 22

Values of goal setting

Answer 22

Examples of the values of setting goals are:
- Increased:
○ motivation and feel-good factor
○ focus
○ standard.

• Improved:
  ○ monitoring of progress
  ○ planning of training sessions (due to focus).

All these values can lead to improved performance.

Question 23

SMART targets

Answer 23

In order for the goals you set to be successful, you need to use SMART targets. You need to apply all of them.
SMART stands for:
S = Specific
M = Measurable
A = Achievable
R = Realistic
T = Time bound

Question 24

Specific (Smart)

Answer 24

• Description:
  You goal must be clear (specific)
• Explanation:
  A vague idea (for example, ‘I must get better’) is not specific or clear enough to provide the focus you need to bring about improved performance.
• Application
  A specific and therefore clear target is:
  To reduce the percentage of unforced errors in my passing from the centre third in netball.

Question 25

Measurable (sMart)

Answer 25

• Description:
  In order to know if your goal has been met successfully, it must be something that can be measured.
• Explanation:
  The best way to measure something is to have units of measurement, for example, time, distances, numbers. Then you can measure if the target has been achieved.
• Application:
  When giving examples of a measurable target make sure it has a number in it, for example:
  To run 10 k 3 seconds faster than my previous best.

Question 26

Values of Goal Setting 2

Answer 26

SMART targets must also be Achievable, Realistic and Time bound.

Question 27

Achievable (smArt)

Answer 27

• Description:
  An achievable target means it is something that is possible for you to do.
• Explanation:
  You need to avoid setting targets which would be too difficult for someone to complete. This would be demotivating, therefore it is important that a performer has the ability, with training, to reach the targets set.
• Application:
  I currently run 100 m in 14.3 seconds.
  My goals is to run 100 m in 14.2 seconds.

Question 28

Realistic (smaRt)

Answer 28

• Description:
  A realistic goal is one that is possible, given all the factors involved.
• Explanation:
  Your goal might be achievable but are the other factors in place that make it realistic? For example, do you have access to training facilities, and do you have the time required?
• Application:
  I currently throw the javelin 30 m. I am going to start an additional training session each week and my goal is to throw 35 m by the end of this season.

Question 29

Time bound (smarT)

Answer 29

• Description:
  Goals must be assigned a time frame for completion.
• Explanation:
  You need to have a cut-off point by which you should have achieved your goal, so that you can see if your training is having the effect you want.
• Application:
  My goal is to run 200 m in 45 seconds by 4 July this year.

Question 30

Goals

Answer 30

Goals can be given a broad time line, which may be:
○ short term
○ medium term
○ long term.
You may have several short-term goals which are leading towards a long-term goal.
For example:
My SMART goal is: I currently average a goal a match in hockey. With additional practice I aim to average 2 goals per match by 30 December.

Question 31

Visual and Verbal Guidance

Answer 31

Different types of guidance can be used to help performers improve. The type of guidance used depends on the skill and the ability of the performer. You need to know which type of guidance is most appropriate for different situations and know the advantages and disadvantages of each type.

Question 32

Visual Guidance

Answer 32

Visual guidance is when the performer is shown the skill. This can be done in a variety of ways, for example:
○ a video of the performer
○ pictures (e.g. photos or sketches)
○ a good quality demonstration.

When using visual guidance:
○ pictures must be clear (to enable understanding)
○ demonstrations must be seen more than once (so the movement can be remembered)
○ demonstrations must be good quality (so poor movement is not copied)
○ demonstrations must be clearly visible.

Question 33

Advantages and Disadvantages of Visual Guidance

Answer 33

Visual guidance is good for beginners so they can see what the skill should look like and create a mental image of what the movement should be.
It is also used when it is not possible to hear verbal guidance, for example, during play.

Advantages:
○ can copy the movement
○ can be done with groups.

Disadvantages:
○ if demonstration is poor, incorrect movement can be learned
○ time consuming/expensive if video used
○ complex or quick movements are difficult to see clearly, so it can be difficult to recognise what the action is and to copy it.

Question 34

Verbal Guidance

Answer 34

Verbal guidance is when the performer is told information about how to complete the correct technique.
When using verbal guidance:
○ the information must be clear (so the meaning is understood)
○ the information must be concise (too much information can be confusing)
○ the performer must be able to hear the instruction.

Question 35

Advantages and Disadvantages of Verbal guidance

Answer 35

Verbal guidance is good for more experienced performers who know what the movement should look like and can make sense of the information. It is also used in situations where demonstrations are not possible, for example, during a break in play.

Advantages:
○ instructions can be given quickly
○ can be used during performance
○ no equipment needed.

Disadvantages:
○ some movements are difficult to explain
○ relies on the coach’s communication skills being good enough that the performer can understand the situation.

Question 36

Manual and Mechanical Guidance

Answer 36

The two other types of guidance you need to know are manual and mechanical.

Question 37

Manual Guidance

Answer 37

Manual guidance is where the coach physically supports or moves the performer to help them get in to the correct position.

Examples include:
○ a tennis coach holding a performer’s racket arm and moving it through the correct range of motion for a forehand drive
○ a trampoline coach supporting a front somersault.

Question 38

Advantages and Disadvantages of Manual Guidance

Answer 38

Advantages:
○ the performer can get a feel for the movement
○ builds confidence
○ can help break down a movement into phases.

Disadvantages:
○ feeling is not the same as actually doing it unaided
○ performer can become dependent on the support
○ incorrect feel can lead to incorrect movement being learned
○ can only be used 1:1.

Question 39

Mechanical Guidance

Answer 39

Mechanical guidance is where the coach uses equipment to support the performer to help them with the technique. For example:
○ using a harness when learning somersaults in trampolining.

Question 40

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical Guidance

Answer 40

Mechanical guidance can be used when the situation is dangerous.

Advantages:
○ the performer can get a feel for the movement
○ builds confidence
○ reduces danger.

Disadvantages:
○ feeling is not the same as actually doing it unaided
○ performer can become dependent on the support
○ incorrect feel can lead to incorrect movement being learned
○ cannot normally be used with large groups.

Question 41

Types of Feedback

Answer 41

The ability of the performer and the type of skill will influence the type of feedback used.

Question 42

Effective Feedback

Answer 42

Feedback is used to:
○ provide information about the skill being performed
○ help improve skill
○ reinforce good practice.

To be effective feedback it must:
○ not be too long - you can only process a small amount of information at a time
○ be given as soon as possible - while the memory of the skill is still fresh
○ be relevant to the performer - so it is specific for them and not the whole group.

Question 43

Intrinsic Feedback

Answer 43

Intrinsic feedback is from within the performer, for example, how the movement felt from feedback from the muscles. This type of feedback is important so performers can learn to spot their own errors.
Intrinsic feedback should be developed so the performer is not too reliant on others. Experienced performers use intrinsic feedback as:
○ the skill is well learned
○ they can feel their own errors and make amendments to their own performance based on their internal feedback.

Question 44

Extrinsic Feedback

Answer 44

Extrinsic feedback is feedback from outside the performer, for example, feedback from the coach telling you what you did right or wrong.
Extrinsic feedback is important, as someone watching the skill can observe problems and explain what needs to be done to correct them.
Less experienced performers are more likely to need extrinsic feedback, as they are not yet able to detect their own errors.

Question 45

Concurrent Feedback

Answer 45

Concurrent feedback is given during a performance.
Concurrent feedback can be intrinsic or extrinsic. For example:
○ an experienced swimmer will feel if the turns are not going correctly and make adjustments for the next turn (intrinsic feedback)
○ a coach can give a performer points to focus on while the performer is on the trampoline, such as ‘point your toes’, ‘lift your arms higher’ (extrinsic feedback).

Question 46

Terminal Feedback

Answer 46

Terminal feedback is given after the performance. Sometimes feedback cannot be given during a performance - this could be due to the rules or the skill not being suitable (for example, diving when the performer is underwater). To be effective, terminal feedback needs to be given as soon as possible after the completion of the skill.

Question 47

Mental Rehearsal

Answer 47

You need to know about mental rehearsal - what it is and why performers use it as part of a warm up before physical activity.

Question 48

Mental Rehearsal

Answer 48

Mental rehearsal is a technique used by many elite performers. It involves mentally practising a skill or movement before physically doing it.
○ During a warm up, you prepare physically and mentally for the coming activity. Mental preparation can be through mental rehearsal.
○ During an event, the performer goes through a skill or sequence of events they are about to perform in their mind. This helps clarify the skill they are about to perform, so they are confident they are ready to perform.
○ Before participating in the Winter Olympics, this luge performer will mentally go through the race, visualising their route down the track before actually racing.

Question 49

When mental rehearsal is used

Answer 49

Although often completed before the start of a performance as part of a warm up, mental rehearsal can also be completed during a break or actually during a performance. For example:
○ during a match when play is paused for a penalty kick in rugby, the performer will see themselves completing the skill well and the ball going between the posts before they take the kick. Having rehearsed a successful kick they then physically attempt it.

Time should be allowed specifically for mental rehearsal, as it can:
○ be used to develop an existing skill
○ help to focus the mind on the task
○ reduce anxiety (due to focus).
○ build confidence (due to mentally seeing successful performances).
Unlike physical practice, the outcome is always successful.