Topic 2: Organisation Flashcards
Ingestion
Taking in something into body through swallowing
Digestion
Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones
Absorption
Nutrients taken into body
Egestion
Removal of waste out of body
What is the function of the mouth in the digestive tract?
Breaks down food
What is the function of the salivary glands in the digestive tract?
Produces amylase
What is the function of the oesophagus in the digestive tract?
Transports food to stomach
What is the function of the liver in the digestive tract?
Produces bile, neutralises stomach acid, emulsifies fats
What is the function of the bile duct in the digestive tract?
Transports bile
What is the function of the gall bladder in the digestive tract?
Stores bile
What is the function of the stomach in the digestive tract?
Breaks down food into smaller particles used in body
What is the function of the pancreas in the digestive tract?
Produces pancreatic fluid which contains enzymes
What is the function of the large intestine in the digestive tract?
Where water is absorbed
What is the function of the appendix in the digestive tract?
Breaks down cellulose
What is the function of the rectum in the digestive tract?
Where waste matter is held before excretion
What is the function of the anus in the digestive tract ?
Muscle which allows things out
What is the function of the small intestine in the digestive tract ?
Split into Ileum and Jejunum, Where nutrients are absorbed into blood
What is the function of the duodenum in the digestive tract ?
Breaks down and absorbs nutrients
What is the function of the carbohydrates food group?
Provides energy
What is the function of the protein food group?
Growth and Repair
What is the function of the lipids food group?
Energy Store, Insulation
What is the function of the vitamins and minerals food group?
General Health
What is the function of the fibre food group?
Aids gut mobility
What is the function of the water food group?
Transport and Chemical Reactions
What are the food groups?
- Carbohydrates
- Protein
- Lipids
- Water
- Fibre
- Vitamins
- Minerals
What are the enzymes which correspond to the three main food groups?
Protein - Protease : Protein –> Amino Acids
Carbohydrates- Carbohydrase and Amylase : Carbohydrates –> Simple Sugars , Starch –> Glucose
Lipids- Lipase : Lipids –> Fatty Acids & Glycerol
What are products of digestion used for?
Build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins whilst some carbohydrates are used in respiration
What are biological catalysts?
Used by living organisms that increases speed of a reaction without being changed or used up in process e.g. enzymes
What are enzymes?
Proteins are made up of chains / bonds of amino acids folded in complex 3D shapes which are unique for each type of enzymes
What is the active site?
Part of the enzyme in which chemical reactions take place
How do enzymes act?
On a specific substrate which binds to a specific active site
What is the lock and key theory?
- Shape of active site complementary to substrate
- Only one substrate fits active site exactly
- When binded, enzyme compound substrate forms
How does temp. affect enzyme activity?
- Temp. increases and reaches enzyme’s optimum temp.
- More collisions between enzymes and substrate
- Increase rate of reaction
- As temp. increases further, enzyme denatures as enzyme no longer fits substrate
- Decrease rate of reaction and is irreversible
What is bile?
- Alkaline substance produced in liver
- Stored and released at right time in Gall Bladder
- Neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fats
What is meant by emulsifying fats?
Breaks down one droplet of fat into smaller droplets so more enzymes can act on it at the same time and allows the droplet to be broken down faster
How are villi adapted?
- Increase Surface Area (micro-villi folds in cell membrane)
- Walls are one cell thick to increase rate of diffusion
- Good blood supply
- Maintains concentration gradient
- Cells with lots of mitochondria for ATP
What is a buffer solution?
Solution at certain pH, controls and varies pH of substance
What is the function of the leaf?
Photosynthesis, Gas Exchange
What is the function of the stem?
Transport substances
What is the function of the roots?
Absorb water and minerals
What is the function of the fruit?
Reproduction
What is the function of a storage organ?
Stores starch + glucose
What is the function of the flower?
Reproduction
What is the function of the xylem and phloem?
Responsible for transport of water and minerals
What is the function of the epidermal?
Covers plant’s surface
What is the function of the mesophyll?
Carries out photosynthesis
What is the parenchyma?
Unspecialised bulk / filler tissue
What is the collenchyma?
Cellulose containing supporting tissue
What is the sclerenchyma?
Strong cellulose and lignin containing cells for mechanical support
What is the function of the upper epidermis?
Produces waxy cuticle, Transparent
What is the function of the palisade mesophyll?
Photosynthesis, Contains chloroplasts
What is the function of the spongy mesophyll?
Gas Exchange, Diffusion for Photosynthesis
What is the function of the lower epidermis?
Contains guard cells and stomata
What is the function of guard cells?
Use osmotic pressure to open and close stomata
What is the function of the vascular bundle?
Transport substances
What is the function of the waxy cuticle?
- Waxy layer for protection
- Absorbs light
- Not made of cells
- Keeps water inside
What are the adaptations of leaves?
- Wide Surface Area : Increase rate of light absorption for photosynthesis
- Very Thin : CO2 enter through stomata has a shorter distance to travel to palisade mesophyll
- Can open pores
Difference between Stomata and Guard Cells
- Stomata are holes found on underside of leaf and allow CO2 gas to enter, Use of stomata is known as Gas Exchange
- Guard Cells control opening and closing of stomata, with them being open in day and close at night , Use of Guard cells is known as Control of Water Loss
Where are roots located and what are they responsible for?
- Root organ systems are located usually underground and are responsible for absorbing water + minerals, attaching plant to ground, storage of food + nutrients and asexual reproduction
What is the xylem?
- Made of dead, thickened cells which produces lignin to strengthen cell wall
- Transport water and mineral ions anywhere
- Flows upwards only
- Uses transpiration
- Is impermeable
What is the phloem?
- Made of living cells
- Transports nutrients such as dissolved sugars from leaves to end of plant for use or storage
- Uses active transport so can flow / move food in any direction
- Uses translocation
- Contains elongated cells and contains pores in end walls to allow cell sap to move from one phloem to cell to another
- Cytoplasm Lining
What are magnesium ions used for?
Production of chlorophyll
What are nitrate ions used for?
Amino Acid Growth
What are phosphate ions used for?
Nucleic Acid, Make DNA, Form new cell membrane
What are calcium ions used for?
Production of cell wall
What are potassium ions used for?
Movement of nutrients, Role in enzyme action, Open + close stomata
What is transpiration?
Movement of water from roots out through the leaves
How is water loss?
Lost through stomata by evaporation
What affects water loss?
- Temperature : Increases rate of diffusion
- Air flow (Wind) : Water vapour which transpires is immediately blown away maintaning conc. gradient
- Humidity : More Humid areas will have smaller conc. gradient
What is the circulatory system?
- Transports blood around the body
- Includes Heart and Blood Vessels
- Necessary because humans are too large and diffusion is not enough to supply for whole body
What are the different types of circulatory system?
Open - don’t contain blood vessels
Single - Goes through heart once per cycle
Double - Goes through heart twice per cycle
What is the route of blood through the heart?
Right Atrium –> Right Ventricle –> Pulmonary Artery –> Lungs –> Pulmonary Vein –> Left Atrium –> Left Ventricle –> Aorta –> Body –> Vena Cava –> Right Atrium
What ventricles pump blood where?
- Right Ventricle pumps blood to lungs where gas exchange takes place
- Left Ventricle pumps blood to rest of body
What are the coronary arteries?
- Heart Muscle is supplied by vessels called coronary arteries
- These branch off aorta shortly after leaving heart
What is a heart attack?
- Where arteries are completely blocked causing myocardial infraction
- Due to heart muscle being deprived of blood and O2, muscle cells in region are unable to respire and die
Describe CHD and its stages
- CHD is where blood flow to heart is interrupted
Stages: - Wall of arteries become furred up with fatty deposits which make up plaque
- Causes high blood pressure as it breaks endothelium which allows fat to build up in walls
- This is known as Atherosclerosis
- Hard outer layer of plaque then cracks
- Platelets form blood clots around crack
- Artery narrows more and block
- Causes lack of blood flow, lack of oxygen and cells die
- Heart muscle dies causing cardiac arrest
What are the symptoms of CHD?
- Pain / Discomfort
- Sick
- Sweating
- Lightheaded
- Out of Breath
What are the diagnosis for CHD?
- EKG (Electrical Interactions)
- Blood Tests ( Cholesterol / Oxygen Saturation Levels )
- Risk Factor Analysis
- Exercise Stress Test
- Echocardiogram (Ultrasound)
- CT / MRI Scan
- Angiogram (Contrast Image)
What are the uncontrollable risk factors for CHD?
- Age, Sex, Ethnicity
- Family History
What are the controllable risk factors for CHD?
- Balanced Diet (High Fat, Cholesterol Diet)
- Exercise Level (Low)
- Weight
- Smoking
What are the medical treatments for CHD?
- Lowering blood pressure using beta-blockers
- Lowering blood cholesterol using statins which limits build up of plaque blockages
- Using aspirin to thin blood as thick blood is more likely to clot and increase blood pressure
What are the surgical treatments for CHD?
- Angioplasty : Inserting a stent (mesh)
- Bypass Surgery : Replacing damaged artery
- Heart Valve replacement
- Heart Transplant : Risk of death, Infection and Rejection
What are the different blood vessels?
1) Arteries - Carries blood away from heart
> Thicker walls to withstand pressure
> Elastic walls to maintain high pressure
2) Veins - Carries blood towards heart
> Thinner than arteries, don’t have to withstand pressure
> Have valves
> Largest lumen (allows more blood)
3) Capillaries - Allows molecules to enter/leave blood
> One cell thick (thin walls)
> Large SA for exchange
> Short diffusion distance
> Lumen is small
What are the layers of an artery?
- Lumen
-Endothelium - Internal Elastic Layer
- Smooth Muscle
- Arterioles
What are the layers of a vein?
- Lumen
- Valve
- Endothelium
- Smooth Muscle
- Venules
What are valves?
Adaptation only found in veins to prevent backflow of blood as veins have low pressure and work against gravity
What are the 4 components of blood?
1) Red Blood Cells
- Contain haemoglobin to bind to O2
- Carry O2 around body
2) Platelets
- Stick together and release protein called fibrin, mesh of fibres
formed around open wound
- RBC’s and platelets stick to mesh and dry to form scab
- Blood Clotting
3) Plasma
- Transports nutrients, hormones and proteins to body
- CO2 from organ to lungs
- Soluble products of digestion from small intestine to organs
- Urea from liver to kidneys
4) White Blood Cells
- Immune System
- Able to squeeze through capillary walls to leave blood and go
into tissue
What are lungs?
Exchange surface for oxygen to enter and carbon dioxide to exit through gas exchange
Describe the characteristics of the Trachea and Bronchi
- Ciliated with Goblet Cells
- Produces mucus, moves out of respiratory system
- Rings of cartilage, prevents collapse of trachea, On outside
- Where air enters lungs
Describe the characteristics of the Bronchioles
- Branches off bronchi
- Connect at alveoli
- Ciliated
What is a pacemaker?
- Also known as sinoatrial node
- Located in wall of right atrium
- Sends impulse to both atria in heart
- Stimulates heart muscle cells to contract in sync
- Disease can cause pacemaker to malfunction so an artificial is used to re-sync contractions
What causes high blood pressure?
- Stress
- High Alcohol Consumption
- Overweight
- Eating too much salt
- Not exercising regularly
What are the adaptations of the alveoli / villi?
- One Cell Thick
> Short Diffusion Distance to blood - Large Surface Area
> More area for Gas Exchange - High Blood Supply
> Coated in capillaries, increases rate of diffusion, maintains conc. gradient - Moist Surface
> Increases rate of gas exchange
What is health?
State of physical and mental wellbeing
What are physical factors for health?
- Disease
- Accident / Injury
What are social factors for health?
- Diet
- Stress
- Life Situation
- Choices ( Smoking, Alcohol)
What is disease?
Disorder which is NOT a direct result of injury
What increases likeliness of disease?
- Defects in immune system means individual is more prone to suffer from infections disease
- These can cause rashes and asthma
What is a risk factor?
Have profound effect on both physical and mental health e.g. tobacco use, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet, alcohol abuse etc.
What do risk factors link to?
Linked to increase rate of disease and can be aspects of person’s lifestyle or substances in person’s body or environment
What is the difference between causation and correlation?
Causation is where one thing causes another
Correlation is where there is a pattern between two sets of data
What is cancer?
A mutation of cells which develop rapidly and lead to uncontrollable growth and division
What are examples of risk factors?
Lifestyle: Smoking, Obesity, UV Radiation, Infection
Genetic: Inherited Family Genes, Age
What are benign tumours?
- Growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane
- Don’t invade other parts of body
What are malignant tumours?
- Cancers that invade neighbouring parts of body in blood where they form secondary tumours
What are secondary tumours?
- Cells that ‘break off’ malignant tumours and travel in bloodstream, metastasis
How do you treat cancer?
- Surgery (Directly remove tumour)
- Chemotherapy (Taking drugs targeting specific cells)
- Radiotherapy (Aiming radiation at tumour cell)
- Targeted Therapy (Specific antibiotics / drugs only attack cancer cell)
What are the negative effects of smoking?
Tar - Damages airways, damages ciliated cells
Nicotine - Addictive, Raises blood pressure
Carbon Monoxide - Irreversibly binds to haemoglobin, prevents RBC from transporting them
Carcinogens - Causes cancers
What are the diseases linked to smoking?
Bronchitis : Inflammation of bronchi / bronchioles
COPD : Blocks airways, tar/mucus build-up (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
Emphysema : Damages walls of alveoli, surface area in which gas exchange occurs decreases
What are the negatives of caffeine?
- Stimulant found in tea and coffee
- Increases blood pressure, heart rate and bursts in energy
- Addictive
What are the negatives of alcohol?
- Depressant found in wine and beer
- Damages liver (liver cirrhosis)
- Addictive
What is liver cirrhosis?
Liver is constantly damaged which forms a large lump of scar tissue leading to liver failure as it can’t function
