Topic 2: Cognitive

Question 1

Define the term memory.

Answer 1

The capacity to retain and retrieve information.

Question 2

Give 4 key assumptions of cognitive psychology.

Answer 2

1. Thoughts influence behaviour.
2. Humans are information processors.
3. The mind operates in a similar way to a computer.
4. Internal mental processes can and should be investigated scientifically.

Question 3

Explain what is meant by declarative memory.

Answer 3

Memory of facts and events (“knowing what”).

Question 4

Explain what is meant by procedural memory or non-declarative memory.

Answer 4

The unconscious memory of skills and how to do things.
(“knowing how”).

Question 5

Describe the case of H.M.

Case study of H.M.

Answer 5

H.M. was born in 1926.
At age 7, he was knocked down by a bicycle and began to have epilepitc sueiqures which worsened over time. He then had a lobotomy to correct it but his memory was impaired as result.

Question 6

Give the aim of the case study of H.M.

Case study of H.M.

Answer 6

To find out the effects of H.M’s brain surgery (removal of 2/3 of hippocampus) on his functioning in particular memory.

Question 7

What type of surgery did William Scoville perform on H.M. and why?

Case study of H.M.

Answer 7

Experimental brain surgery removing the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus as he thought it would stop the seizures.

Question 8

What was the result of H.M’s operation (lobotomy

Case study of H.M.

Answer 8

H.M. suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia, and was not able to create new memories.

Question 9

What does H.M. case study provide evidence for?

Case study of H.M.

Question 10

Explain why the case study of H.M. has low generalisabilty?

Case study of H.M.

Answer 10

• Done on one participant (H.M.) who was highly unique. He had epiliepsy so his brain structure may have been different to a typical brain.
• Therefore, the findings about memory may not generalise to a target population.

Question 11

Explain why the case study of H.M. has low reliability?

Case study of H.M.

Answer 11

• This case study cannot be replicated as H.M. was studied over a long period of time (51 years).
• Much of the data gathered was qualitative, from observations and interviews.

Question 12

What are the applications of the case study of H.M?

Case study of H.M.

Answer 12

• One of the first studies to show that there are distinct memory functions —> good springboard for future research.
• Allows us to understand how memory is localised in the brain —> can help psychologists to develop starteigies to help people with memory loss/ brain injury.

Question 13

Explain the validity of the case study of H.M.

Case study of H.M.

Answer 13

• High validity as H.M was studied through a variety of methods therefore, giving a rich, detailed understanding of his memory issues.
• Low validity as because it is a case study there is no control of extraneous variables.
• Low ecological validity concerning studies done in hospital and those involving artificial taks but high eco validity due to studies done at home as the environment is familiar.

Question 14

Describe why the case study of H.M. is unethical.

Case study of H.M.

Answer 14

• H.M. didn’t have functioning memory so could not give informed consent for any of the tests performed on him.
• He never gave permission for his brain being preserved, nor were any of his closest relatives approached.

Question 15

Describe the qualitative process/ the steps used in the qualitative process.

Answer 15

1. A research question is created.
2. Data is collected in the form of interviews, questionnaires, speech analysis etc.
3. Data is transcribed/ written up.
4. Look for themes and ideas.
5. Reach conclusions based on themes and answer research question.
6. Explain and justify conclusion using evidence from analysis.

Question 16

Who created The Multi Store Model?

MSM

Answer 16

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Question 17

What are the 3 components in The Multi Store Model?

MSM

Answer 17

• Sensory Memory
• Short-term Memory
• Long-term Memory

Question 18

Describe the Sensory Memory

MSM

Answer 18

• Info arrives from 5 senses - by intaking its environment
• Large capacity
• Encoded visually and ecoustically
• Short duration (less than a second) - info immediately lost

Question 19

How is information forgotten from sensory register?

Answer 19

If no attention is paid to it

Question 20

Describe the Short Term Memory

MSM

Answer 20

• Encoding: acoustically encoded.
• Retrieval: rapid Sequential Scan of stored info.
• Rehearsal maintains info in the STM (strengthens memory trace).
• More info enters, old info (with a weak memory trace) decays.
• Info has to be attended to enter
• Duration is 15-30 seconds & then decays (if not rehearsed)
• 7+/-2 chunks capacity

Question 21

How is information forgotten from the short term memory?

Answer 21

No maintenance rehearsal or displacement

Question 22

Describe the Long Term Memory?

MSM

Answer 22

• Encoding: if info is linked to prior knowledge, easier to search for.
• Encoded semantically.
• If you understand info, more likely to remember
• Unlimited capacity & duration
• Info recalled from LTM to STM when needed
• Retrieval: not stored as one memory trace but multiple copies.

Question 23

How is information forgotten from long term memory?

Answer 23

decay or interference

Question 24

What is evidence for Short Term Memory?

MSM

Answer 24

Peterson & peterson (1959):

• Recall a trigram with an interference task
• Performance dropped after 15-18 sec - info decays rapidly if not rehearsed

Question 25

What is evidence for Long Term Memory?

MSM

Answer 25

Bahrick et al (1975):

• Memory test using face & names in school yearbook
• 15 years after leaving school: 90% face & age recalled
• 48 years: 70-80% recall

Question 26

What is a strength of the multi store model (PEE)?
clive wearing

Answer 26

A strength of the multi store model of memory is the supporting evidence from Clive Wearing who had anterograde and retrograde amnesia. This meant he was unable to form new long term memories although he could engage in conversation for a few seconds before forgetting, which shows that his STM was still intact to an extent. Therefore, this supports the model because it suggests that STM and LTM have separate stores and the linear transfer from STM is essential in creating long term memories.

Question 27

What is a strength of the multi store model (PEE)?
peterson and peterson

Answer 27

A strength of the multi store model is the supporting evidence from Peterson and Petrson. They used nonsense trigrams to investigate the duration of short term memory and found that after 3 seconds, 80% were recalled but after 18 seconds, 10% were recalled. Therefore, this supports the model because it aligns with the limited duration of STM and the existence of maintenance rehearsal at 3 seconds followed by the process of decay.

Question 28

what is a weakness for the multi store model (PEE)?
peterson and peterson

Answer 28

however, in peterson and peterson’s study, nonsense trigrams were used to reflect short term memory. this artificial task lacks mundane realism because recalling nonsense trigrams is very different to everyday tasks in the real world. therefore, it lacks task validity and the fact that the trigrams were nonsense suggests that the decay could be due to confusion rather than memory processes.

Question 29

what is a weakness of the multi store model? (PEE)
simplistic

Answer 29

a weakness of the multi store model is that it is considered to be reductionist. it reduces memory down to 3 components and lacks detail on the complex functions. for example, the description of transfer from STM to LTM only being due to ‘maintenance rehearsal.’ additionally, it does not account for formation of LTM without rehearsal, such as remembering what you ate for dinner on your birthday, even though you did not rehearse this. therefore, it has simplified a much more complex process which reduces the credibility and makes it an incomplete explanation.

Question 30

what are the applications of the multi store model? (PEE)

Answer 30

a strength of the multi store model is that it has practical applications. for example, the model emphasises the importance of maintenance rehearsal when transferring STM into LTM. therefore, this would benefit students in terms of their revision as they should continuously go over and practise content in order to sufficiently memorise information for an exam.

Question 31

how does clive wearing’s case challenge the multi store model? (PEE)

Answer 31

the case of clive wearing can criticise the multi store model. for example, his long term memory for facts was particularly damaged, however he could remember how to walk, talk and play the piano. therefore, this suggests that LTM is not one unitary store, making the model a weak explanation which has oversimplified a much more complex system.

Question 32

Who created the Working Memory Model?

WMM

Answer 32

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Question 33

What are the components in the Working Memory Model?

WMM

Answer 33

• Central Executive
• Phonological Loop
• Visuospatial Sketchpad
• Episodic Buffer (added later)

Question 34

Describe the Central Executive?

WMM

Answer 34

Decides what information to pay attention to and what no to and allocates tasks to the appropriate slave system.
It also deals with cognitive tasks e.g. problem solving.
It relates all the information to LTM.
Limited Capacity

Question 35

Describe the Phonological Loop?

WMM

Answer 35

Temporarily stores and processes spoken and written info.

Split into 2 subsystems:

Phonological Store (inner ear):
- Holds limited verbal info for a few seconds - decays rapidly - can be extended using articulatory rehearsal system.

Articulatory Rehearsal System (inner voice):
- Rehearses & stores verbal info from the phonological store

Question 36

Describe the Visuospatial Sketchpad?

WMM

Answer 36

Stores and processes visual and spatial info. Used for navigation.

Question 37

Describe the episodic buffer

Answer 37

recalls and integrates info from STM to LTM
manipulates information

Question 38

what is a strength of the working memory model (PEE)?
KF

Answer 38

a strength of the working memory model is the supporting evidence from patient KF. after a motorcycle accident, he lost the ability to form verbal memories but could still form visual memories. for example, he had a digit span of 1 which suggests that the phonological store was damaged. therefore, this suggests that short term memory has separate stores which strengthens the concept of the working memory in comparison to the multi store model.

Question 39

What is a weakness of the working memory model (PEE)?
KF

Answer 39

a weakness of the working memory model is that in patient KF’s study, there is low reliability. for example, case studies use complex procedures with unique brain damaged participants who have memory impairments. therefore, they cannot be accurately and ethically replicated as it would not be morally correct to reproduce and data would be difficult to compare as every participant has a different, complicated situation.

Question 40

what are the applications of the working memory model?

Answer 40

a strength of the working memory model is the practical applications. for example, it explains that impairment in the phonological loop makes it difficult to remember a sequence that can be read aloud. therefore, it has implications for people with dyslexia who may need extra support or time in exams to compensate for this.

Question 41

Describe Tulving’s Long Term theory of memory

Answer 41

• Semantic memory: general knowledge and facts: origin of forming the memory not recalled + no personal or temporal link. Memories encoded acoustically
• Episodic memory: events that we experience, personal / temporal links

Question 42

what is a strength & weakness of Tulving’s LTM theory in terms of validity and reliability? (PEE)

Answer 42

a strength of Tulving’s LTM theory is that the research is based off case studies. this means that it studies participants in their natural environment so reflects memory in real life. therefore, this increases the validity. however, due to being case studies which investigate brain damaged, vulnerable patients, this would be unethical to replicate. therefore, this reduces the reliability.

Question 43

what is a strength & weakness of the theory in terms of reliability and validity?

Answer 43

a strength of tulvings ltm theory is that it has high reliability. for example, memory is often related to the hippocampus which is studied using brain imaging. brain scans are credible, objective measures as they can be checked by multiple researchers. however, it is suggested that the medial temporal lobe is used for both episodic and semantic memories. therefore this suggests that there is not much of a separation between the two stores which reduces the theory’s validity.

Question 44

what is a weakness of tulvings LTM theory (PEE)?
HM

Answer 44

a weakness of Tulving’s LTM theory is the opposing evidence from HM. this is because when he was asked to draw a star, he improved everyday but didn’t recall ever drawing one. therefore, this suggests that there is a third LTM store (procedural) which involves skills you do not have to think about to carry out.

Question 45

what are the applications of Tulving’s theory of LTM?

Answer 45

a strength of tulvings ltm theory is the practical applications. for example, it states that in order for episodic memories to be retrieved, cues should be formed at the time of encoding. therefore, this applies to eye witness testimony. in order to gain a more accurate EWT, police should use cues such as contextual reinstatement in cognitive interviews where witnesses can re imagine the scene of the crime

Question 46

who proposed the theory of reconstructive memory?

Answer 46

Bartlett

Question 47

Define schema.

Question 48

Describe individual differences in memory.

Answer 48

• processing speed
• digit span
• schemas