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HL Biology - topical sets > Topic 2 > Flashcards

Topic 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Distinguish between unique and highly repetitive DNA sequences [6]

A
  • HR makes up a larger proportion of the total genome than unique
  • unique are much shorter sequences than HR
  • unique are translated into proteins, HR aren’t
  • unique don’t vary much between individuals, HR vary highly
  • unique occur once in a genome, HR occur many times
  • unique may be genes, HR are not genes
  • repetitive DNA is used for profiling
  • satellite DNA is formed from repetitive sequences
  • prokaryotes usually don’t have repetitive sequences
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2
Q

Outline the outcomes of the human genome project [6]

A
  • promote international cooperation
  • provide evidence for evolutionary relationships
  • improve ability to SCREEN FOR certain diseases/ find genes causing certain diseases
  • tailor medication to individual genetic variation
  • development of new gene therapies
  • find the functions/structures of certain proteins
  • all the human genes/their positions mapped
  • complete human DNA SEQUENCED
  • find mutations
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3
Q

Why C is an important compound

A
  • forms 4 covalent bonds
  • can form large variety of complex, stable molecules
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4
Q

What is an organic molecule

A

Contains carbon and is found in living org.

(exceptions - CO3(2-), CN-, CO, CO2, CaC2)

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5
Q

Functions of different organic molecules

A

Carbohydrates:
- most abundant org molecule -> CHO
- used as short term energy storage + energy source
- can be a recognition molecule (glycoproteins) or a structural component (sugar-phosphate backbone in DNA/RNA)

Proteins:
- made up of CHON(S)
- important role in catalysis of reactions (as enzymes)
- structural, cell recognition and transport functions

Nuc acids:
- make up genetic material of all cells
- DNA -> instructions for protein synth. RNA -> has many roles in protein synth
- CHOPN

Lipids:
- non-polar molecules used in membranes
- also used as a signalling molecule -> steroids
- used as long-term energy storage -> fats and oils

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6
Q

Monomers of different types of compounds

A

Carb:
- monosaccharides

Protein:
- Amino acids

Nucleic acids:
- nucleotides

Lipids:
- no monomers as such, as lipids have various different structures
- have smaller subunits -> fatty acid chains, monoglycerides

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7
Q

Types of lipids

A

simple: esters of fatty acids and alcohol
compound: esters of fatty acids, alcohols and additional groups
derived: substances derived from simple and compound lipids -> steroids/carotenoids, etc

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8
Q

Vitalism + disproving

A

vitalism: doctrine that living beings contained a vital force needed to synthesise organic molecules. Frederick Woehler showed that organic molecules were not fundamentally different from inorganic molecules

  • Heated inorganic salt ammonium cyanate
  • produced urea -> waste product of metabolism in many living org
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9
Q

Functions of metabolism

A
  • source of energy for growth processes (reproduction, cell growth)
  • synthesis and assimilation of new materials for use in cells
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10
Q

Anabolic v. Catabolic

A

A: the buildup of complex polymers from simple monomers. Often condensation reactions that are endergonic.

C: The breakdown of complex polymers into simple monomers. Often hydrolysis reactions that are exergonic

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11
Q

Properties of water that make it good for living organisms

A
  • High LHV: Makes it good coolant in sweat
  • High SHC: Maintenance of constant environment (internal and external)
  • Surface tension bc of cohesion: organisms can walk on water
  • Adhesion/cohesion: transpiration stream
  • Universal solvent: component of blood, plant sap
  • Expands upon freezing -> ice caps float on water -> provide a habitat
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12
Q

Substances that travel in blood

A
  • Ions
  • O2 (only low quantities can dissolve) mainly travels in RBC
  • glucose - it has many OH groups hence can dissolve
  • AAs -> either the amine or carboxyl group will be charged
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13
Q

Substances that don’t freely travel in blood

A
  • Lipids: since they are large and NP
    -> form lipoprotein complexes -> the hydrophilic parts of proteins, chol. and phospholipids face outwards -> hypho parts are shielded
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14
Q

Functions of mono, di and polysaccharides

A
  • Mono: immediate source of energy
  • Di: usually used as a transport form
  • Poly: for long term energy storage
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15
Q

Types of sugar polysaccharides

A

Starch(plants):
- Amylose: alpha glucose, helical molecule, 1-4 glycosidic linkages, used to store energy -> takes up less space in plants. Harder to digest though
- Amylopectin: alpha glucose, branching structure, 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic linkages -> branching allows for easier retrieval of glucose

Glycogen(animals):
- alpha glucose, branching (more extensive than amylopectin)
- 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic linkages
- energy storage in animals

Cellulose:
- beta glucose, every other glucose monomer is flipped
- creates a straight chain molecule with 1-4 glycosidic linkages
- cellulose forms myofibrils
- high tensile strength to allow turgidity

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16
Q

Triglyceride formation

A
  • most common form of lipids
  • glycerol (CH2OHCHOHCH2OH) reacts with 3 fatty acids in a condensation reaction -> 3 ester linkages between the OHs of the glycerol and COOH of the fatty acids
17
Q

LDLs and HDLs

A
  • high density lipoproteins are good for the body -> they carry cholesterol to the liver for removal
  • LDLs are bad -> they carry cholesterol from the liver to rest of body
  • cis unsaturated fats increase HDLs
  • saturated fats increase LDLs
  • trans fats increase LDLs and decrease HDLs
18
Q

Sugars v lipids to store energy

A
  • Lipids store twice as much energy per gram than sugars
  • sugars are easier to metabolise
  • sugars are easier to transport in the bloodstream
  • lipids are insoluble in water, hence don’t impact osmolarity
  • lipids more suitable for longterm storage
19
Q

calculating BMI

A

mass in kg/(height in m)^2

20
Q

What is quaternary protein structure

A

more than one polypeptide chain linked together, or if proteins have inorganic prosthetic groups in the structure

eg:- haemoglobin - has 4 polypeptide chains + haeme groups

21
Q

secondary structure

A

formed when the amino acid sequence folds into 2 stable structures
- alpha helices
- beta pleated sheets

if no 2 structure -> just forms a random coil

22
Q

Effect of temperature on proteins

A
  • if temperature too high, H bonds holding the structure together break
  • the 3D structure of the protein is altered as it unfolds -> cannot effectively carry out its function
23
Q

Effect of pH on proteins

A
  • AAs are zwitterions -> neutral but contain positively and negatively charged regions
  • when pH changes charge on the AA changes
  • may become insoluble and change shape
24
Q

Proteome

A

totality of the proteins expressed in a cell, tissue or organism at a given time

varies amongst individuals -> larger than the genome bc of alternative splicing + protein modification

25
Q

Protein functions

A
  • Structural component: collagen (component of connective tissue in animals), spider silk (fibres spun by spiders)
  • Hormones: Insulin, glucagon
  • Enzymes: catalysis of metabolic reactions (rubisco)
  • sensation: rhodopsin (receptor protein)
  • Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
  • Transport: membrane proteins, pumps, etc. (Na/K pump)
  • movement: actin, myosin
26
Q

Uses of enzymes in industries

A
  • To make beer and dairy products
  • Paper: pulping of wood for paper production
  • screen for pregnancies and certain diseases
  • biotech: gene splicing involves enzyme use
  • biofuels: to break carbohydrates down and produce ethanol-based fuels
27
Q

benefits of lactose-free milk

A
  • doesn’t crystallise as easily -> good for ice creams
  • lactose-intolerant population can eat
  • sweeter
  • reduces production time for cheeses and yogurts -> bacteria ferment monosaccharides more readily
28
Q

Number of h bonds betw nucleotide bases

A

A-T -> 2
C-G -> 3

29
Q

Discoveries enabling watson and crick to form their model

A
  • bond angles by linus pauling
  • equal number of purines and pyrimidines - chargaff
  • dna is a helical structure - franklin
  • nucleotide made of sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base - Levene

watson and cricks model displayed
- antiparallel strands w a helical structure
- complementary base pairing
- outer edges of bases remain exposed -> access to transcriptional and replication machinery

initial flaws:
- bases were on the outside and sugar phosphate in the centre
- triple helix
- wrong configuration of N bases

30
Q

Meselson and Stahl

A
  • displayed semi-conservative replication to be true

N can exists as 2 isotopes -> N-14 and N-15
- DNA was prepared using heavier N-15
- induced to replicate in presence of lighter N-14
- the resultant DNA was centrifuged

Results:
- first copy of DNA had a mix of 14 and 15 -> disproving conservative model
- second division has only 14 -> disproving dispersive model

31
Q

Exercise and lactic acid production

A
  • large amounts of energy expenditure occur when exercising at high intensity
  • when body cannot breakdown glucose aerobically -> anaerobic respiration
  • causes lactic acid buildup in muscles -> fatigue
  • after exercise over -> oxygen levels increase -> lactate converted to pyruvate
32
Q

Respirometry

A
  • can measure an organisms rate of respiration -> by measuring rate of O2 and CO2 exchange -> living specimen is observed in a sealed container
  • production of CO2 can be measured using data logger/pH probe is substance immersed in water
  • consumption of O2 measured by leaving organism in the sealed container, attached to another container via a U tube with liquid inside (U tube manometer). The carbon absorbing substance absorbs CO2, causing the water to move towards organism when O2 consumed.
33
Q

Absorption spectrum

A

the wavelentghs of light absorbed by each pigment

34
Q

Action spectrum

A

the overall rate of photosynthesis that takes place at different wavelengths of light

35
Q

The general trends of pigments in action and absorption spectra

A
  • both have highest action/absorb in the blue
  • smaller peak in red
  • trough in green
36
Q

How to calculate Rf value

A

distnce travelled by pigment / distance travelled by solvent front

37
Q

2 types of chromatography

A
  • paper: uses thin paper as the base
  • TLC: uses thin layer of silica adsorbent gel -> better separation
38
Q

How to measure photosynthesis rates

A

CO2:
- measure change in co2 levels using data logger
- submerge plant leaf in water and measure the decrease in dissolved co2 -> more alkaline

O2:
- measure release of O2 gas by attaching the plant in test tube to a gas syringe -> meniscus level change

Biomass change
- increase in biomass
- plant needs to be proper dehydrated though

39
Q

Impact of photosynthesis on oceans, air and land

A

Air:
- anoxic conditions -> 21% oxygen

Oceans:
- dissolved iron in water reacted with O to produce Fe2O3
- after all fe used up -> O began to escape into atmosphere

Rocks:
- The iron and oxygen reaction created Banded iron formations -> rock sediments
- when BIF depostition slowed in oceans, iron-rich layers began to form on land

biological life:
- o led to rise of aerobic organisms
- toxic to obligate anaerobes -> extinct

HL Biology - topical sets (11 decks)

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