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Biology > Topic 1- complete > Flashcards

Topic 1- complete Flashcards

1
Q

define cohesive

A

the attraction between molecules of the same type (water)

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2
Q

why do small organisms not need a mass transport system?

A

their surface area to volume ratio is high enough for diffusion to be effective enough on its own

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3
Q

why is mass transport needed?

A

because cells need a constant supply of reactants (oxygen and glucose) for metabolism

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4
Q

why do larger organisms need a mass transport system?

A

low surface area to volume ratio, large diffusion distance, high energy requirement means high metabolic rate (so more reactants needed)

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5
Q

what is included in a mass transport system?

A

a network to move through (vessels),
a medium for movement (blood),
controlled movement (pressure from heart and controlled by valves),
maintenance of speed (contraction of heart and elastic recoil of arteries maintain blood pressure and therefore speed)

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6
Q

define mass transport

A

the bulk movement of gases or liquids in one direction usually by a system of vessels and tubes

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7
Q

what are the benefits of a mass transport system?

A

moves substances quickly, maintains diffusion gradients, ensures effective cell activity by supplying reactants and removing waste products

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8
Q

what are the stages of the cardiac cycle?

A

atrial systole, ventricular systole, cardiac diastole

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9
Q

describe atrial systole

A

ventricles relax, atria contracts, atrial pressure increases and volume decreases, atrioventricular valves open, blood enters ventricles, slight increase in ventricular pressure and chamber volume

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10
Q

describe ventricular systole

A

atria relax, ventricles contract, ventricular pressure increases and volume decreases, pressure in ventricles higher than in atria and atrioventricular valves close, pressure continues to increase (now higher than pulmonary artery) semi lunar valves open, blood forced out

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11
Q

describe cardiac diastole

A

ventricles and aria relax, pressure in ventricles drop and semilunar valves close, pressure in vena cava and pulmonary vein higher than in the atria, blood enters atria, atria contracts, atrial pressure increases and volume decreases, atrioventricular valves open

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12
Q

what are the 4 main blood vessels of the heart?

A

pulmonary vein, pulmonary artery, vena cava, aorta

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13
Q

what is the function of the septum?

A

prevents oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixing

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14
Q

why does the left ventricle have thicker walls than the right ventricle?

A

the left needs to pump blood all around the body so needs a more powerful contraction

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15
Q

why does the right ventricle have thinner walls than the left ventricles?

A

the right only needs to pump blood to the lungs which are nearby

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16
Q

why do the ventricles have thicker walls than the atria?

A

the atria only have to pump blood to the ventricles but the ventricles have to pump blood out of the heart

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17
Q

what supplies the cardiac muscle with blood?

A

coronary arteries

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18
Q

why do the veins have valves?

A

lower pressure than arteries so valves stop back flow of blood

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19
Q

describe how the features of the arteries show they are adapted to their function

A

thick-walled (provides strength), muscular, elastic tissue (expands and contracts) to cope with high pressure (away from heart), endothelium is folded to allow artery to expand, narrow lumen, outer walls contain collagen for protection

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20
Q

describe features of the veins

A

wide lumen, thin muscle tissue, valves, low pressure (back towards heart), blood flow helped by contraction of body muscles surrounding them

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21
Q

describe how features of the capillaries show they are adapted to their function

A

smallest, endothelium 1 cell thick to lower diffusion distance, capillary beds increase surface area, where metabolic exchange occurs, narrow lumen means red blood cells flow single file which reduces speed so more time for diffusion, cells in walls have pores which allow white blood cells or plasma to leak out

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22
Q

what are the ethical issues with using invertebrates in research?

A

cannot give consent, cannot express pain

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23
Q

what are the ways of limiting ethical issues when using invertebrates in research?

A

use invertebrates as less sophisticated nervous system, handed gently, examination periods kept as short as possible, returned promptly to holding tank, extreme ranges of variables shouldn’t be tested (extreme temps. or caffeine concs.)

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24
Q

what has to be damaged for an atheroma to form?

A

the endothelium

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25
Q

what response is triggered by damage to the endothelium?

A

the inflammatory response

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26
Q

what are the fatty steaks in the formation of the atheroma made of?

A

white blood cells and lipids clumped together

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27
Q

what are atheromas made of?

A

white blood cells, calcium salts, cholesterol, lipids and connective tissue

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28
Q

why do atheromas increase blood pressure?

A

plaque partially blocks the lumen of the artery and restrict blood flow

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29
Q

what is the process of an atheroma hardening?

A

calcification

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30
Q

what is atherosclerosis?

A

the hardening of the arteries caused by atheromas

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31
Q

how can atheromas increase risk of thrombosis?

A

the atheroma can rupture, causing a blood clot to form at the rupture site (thrombosis=blood clotting)

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32
Q

what is the enzyme in the blood clotting cascade?

A

thrombin

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33
Q

what is a blood clot made of?

A

fibrin, platelets, red blood cells

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34
Q

what 3 things are needed to convert prothrombin to thrombin?

A

thromboplastin (released from platelets), vitamin K and calcium ions

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35
Q

how can a blood clot cause heart attacks?

A

a clot can block a coronary artery which stops blood supply to the heart muscles. this can cause damage and death of heart muscles

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36
Q

what is a stroke?

A

a rapid loss of brain function due to a disruption in the blood supply to the brain

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37
Q

what is deep vein thrombosis?

A

the formation of a blood clot in a vein deep inside the body

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38
Q

what are the causes of deep vein thrombosis?

A

prolonged inactivity (flights) and risk increases with age

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39
Q

what are the 7 factors that can increase risk of CVD?

A

diet, inactivity, smoking, high blood pressure, genetics, age, gender

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40
Q

how does diet increase risk of CVD?

A

a diet high in saturated fats increases blood cholesterol which increases atheroma formation. A diet high in salt also increases risk of high blood pressure

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41
Q

how does high blood pressure increase risk of CVD?

A

increases risk of damage to artery walls which increases risk of atheroma formation

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42
Q

what lifestyle factors increase high blood pressure?

A

excessive alcohol consumption, stress, diet

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43
Q

how does smoking increase risk of CVD?

A

CO in cigarettes reduces oxygen supply which can cause a heart attack if heart muscle is starved of oxygen

44
Q

how can inactivity increase risk of CVD?

A

increases blood pressure

45
Q

what lifestyle factors increase risk of CVD?

A

diet, smoking and inactivity

46
Q

how can genetics increase risk of CVD?

A

different alleles mean some people are more likely to have high cholesterol or high blood pressure

47
Q

how can age increase risk of CVD?

A

risk of CVD increases with age, this is partially due to plaque which can build up over time

48
Q

how can gender increase risk of CVD?

A

men are 3x more likely to have CVD than pre-menopausal women, this may be due to hormones (estrogen increases levels of HDL)

49
Q

why might people overestimate the risk of developing CVD?

A

(they believe the risk is greater than it actually is) might have known someone who smoked and dies from CVD so now think anyone who smokes will die from CVD, constant exposure to articles about links between lifestyle factors and CVD can make people constantly worried

50
Q

why might people underestimate the risk of developing CVD?

A

(they believe the risk is lower than it actually is) could be due to lack of information making them unaware of the factors that increase CVD

51
Q

what are the 4 types of drugs which can treat CVD?

A

antihypertensives, statins, anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs

52
Q

how do antihypertensives treat CVD?

A

reduce high blood pressure so less chance of damage to the endothelium (less risk of atheroma’s)

53
Q

what are the types of antihypertensives?

A

beta-blockers, diuretics and vasodilators

54
Q

how do beta- blockers reduce high blood pressure?

A

reduce the strength of the heart beat

55
Q

how do diuretics reduce high blood pressure?

A

reducing the amount of sodium which is reabsorbed by the blood in the kidneys. this means less water is retained which reduces blood volume

56
Q

how do vasodilators reduce blood pressure?

A

widen the blood vessels

57
Q

what are the benefits of antihypertensives?

A

can be used in combination with each other as they work differently

58
Q

what are the risks of antihypertensives?

A

palpitations, allergic reactions and depression

59
Q

how do statins treat CVD?

A

reduce blood cholesterol by reducing LDL (bad) produced in the liver, this lowers atheroma formation

60
Q

what are the benefits of statins?

A

reduce the risk of CVD

61
Q

what are the risks of statins?

A

side effects such as muscle and joint pain and liver damage, and need to be taken long term to be effective

62
Q

how do anticoagulants treat CVD?

A

reduce blood clotting so clots less likely to form at sites of damaged blood vessels and reduce blood flow

63
Q

what are the benefits of anticoagulants?

A

can be used to treat people with existing clots or CVD as they prevent from growing

64
Q

what are the risks of anticoagulants?

A

if injured excessive bleeding may occur, damage to fetus if taken in pregnancy

65
Q

give two examples of anticoagulants

A

warfarin and heparin

66
Q

how do platelet inhibitory drugs treat CVD?

A

type of anticoagulant so prevent platelets clumping together to form a blood clot

67
Q

what are the risks of platelet inhibitory drugs?

A

excessive bleeding if injured which can cause fainting and death

68
Q

define energy budget

A

describes the amount of energy taken in by an organism and the amount of energy used up by an organism

69
Q

why does weight gain occur?

A

if energy intake is higher than energy output the excess energy is turned to fat reserves by the body

70
Q

why does weight loss occur?

A

if energy intake is lower than energy output the body turns some of its fat reserves into energy

71
Q

what is the formula for energy budget?

A

energy input-energy output= energy budget

72
Q

what reaction joins two monosaccharides together?

A

condensation

73
Q

what bond holds two monosaccharides together?

A

glycosidic

74
Q

give 4 examples of monosaccharides

A

alpha and beta glucose, galactose and fructose

75
Q

give 3 examples of disaccharides

A

lactose, sucrose, maltose

76
Q

give 3 examples of polysaccharides

A

amylose, amylopectin, glycogen

77
Q

what is the main energy storage material in plants?

A

starch

78
Q

what are the 2 structures of starch?

A

amylose and amylopectin (alpha glucose)

79
Q

describe the structure of amylose

A

1-4 glycosidic bonds, coiled structure, unbranched, compact

80
Q

describe the structure of amylopectin

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds, coiled structure with branches, side branches allow molecule to be quickly hydrolysed as more enzymes can bind

81
Q

is starch soluble in water?

A

no. this means it doesn’t cause water to enter cells via osmosis which would make them swell so starch is good for storage

82
Q

what is the main energy storage material in animals?

A

glycogen

83
Q

what is the monosaccharide glycogen is made of?

A

alpha glucose

84
Q

describe the structure of glycogen

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds, many branches, compact, insoluble, large so lots of energy

85
Q

what are triglycerides a type of?

A

lipid

86
Q

what are triglycerides made of?

A

one glycerol and 3 fatty acids

87
Q

what are fatty acids made of?

A

a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group

88
Q

are fatty acids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?- what does this mean?

A

hydrophobic so lipids are insoluble in water

89
Q

how are triglycerides formed?

A

by condensation reactions between 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol, 3 water is released and 3 ester bonds form

90
Q

where are saturated fats found?

A

in animal fats

91
Q

where are unsaturated fats found?

A

in plants

92
Q

which type of lipids melt at lower temperatures?

A

unsaturated

93
Q

which fats increase risk of CVD?

A

saturated

94
Q

which type of fats are ‘good’?

A

unsaturated

95
Q

what type of fats are ‘bad’?

A

saturated

96
Q

what is cholesterol a type of?

A

lipid (made in the body)

97
Q

describe the role High Density Lipoproteins

A

transport cholesterol from body tissues to the liver where it is recycled or excreted

98
Q

what are high density lipoproteins made of?

A

unsaturated lipids/fats and proteins
mainly proteins

99
Q

which type of lipoprotein decreases blood cholesterol levels?

A

high density lipoproteins

100
Q

which type of lipoprotein increases blood cholesterol levels?

A

low density lipoproteins

101
Q

describe the role of Low Density Lipoproteins

A

transport cholesterol from liver to blood where it circulates until its needed by cells

102
Q

what are low density lipoproteins made of?

A

saturated fats/lipids and proteins
mainly lipids

103
Q

what is the healthy ratio of LDL:HDL?

A

3:1

104
Q

what is the equation for BMI?

A

weight in kg/height squared m

105
Q

what is the threshold BMI for obesity?

A

30

106
Q

how is the waist hip ratio calculated?

A

waist cm/ hip cm

107
Q

what value of waist to hip ratio shows a health risk?

A

a value above 1

Biology (9 decks)

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