Toegepaste Cognitieve Psychologie Flashcards
Over welke interactie gaat TCP?
Over de interactie tussen mens en omgeving, de interactie met andere mensen valt hierbuiten!
Wat doet een TCP-er?
Een TCP-er evalueert de interactie van gebruikers met de omgeving en komt met mogelijke oplossingen.
Waar gaat TCP over?
Over het bevorderen van de veiligheid, het verbeteren van alledaagse dingen & ondersteunen van werk-en leefsituatie door de omgeving aan te passen aan de mens en daarbij kennis en methoden uit de cognitieve psychologie te gebruiken.
Human-data interaction
The complex interactions between humans / online software agents and data access.
Human factors
The study of those variables that influence the efficiency with which the human performer can interact with the inanimate components of a system to accomplish the system goals.
What is the intention of the human performance researcher?
To characterize the processes within the human component.
What is the intention of the human factors specialist?
To design the human-machine interface to optimize achievement of the system goal.
HCI (abbreviation)
Human-computer interface
Macroergonomics
The interactions between the organizational environment and the design and implementation of a system.
What does total system performance depend upon?
The operator, the machine and the environment in which they are placed.
What component of total system performance does the design engineer study?
The machine.
What component of total system performance does a human performance researcher study?
The operator.
What component of the total system performance does a human factors specialist study?
The interrelations between the different components.
Weber’s law
Describes people’s ability to determine that 2 stimuli differ in magnitude.
diff. in I / I = K
Fechner’s law
Relates physical intensity to psychological sensation.
S = k* log (I)
Human information processing
Assumes that cognition occurs through a series of operations performed on information originating from the senses.
What 3 contributions did Frederik W. Taylor make?
- Task analysis
- Pay for performance
- Personnel selection
Time-and-motion study
Analyzes worker’s movements across time to determine the best way to perform a task.
Pay for performance
The amount of compensation to a worker is a function of the amount of pieces completed.
Hoe wordt TCP in Europa ook wel genoemd?
Ergonomie
Hoe wordt TCP in de USA ook wel genoemd?
Human Factors
Welke 3 geschiedenis dingen zijn bepalend geweest voor de ontwikkeling van TCP?
- industriële revolutie
- 2e wereldoorlog
- digitale revolutie
Wat was het doel van de industrialisatie?
Het verhogen van de productiviteit op de werkvloer.
Charles Babbage
Belangrijk in de industriële en digitale revolutie. Voorstander van arbeidsverdeling op de werkvloer.
Frederik Winslow Taylor
De grondlegger van scientific management. Gaf oorzaken van lage productiviteit op de werkvloer en oplossingen om dit te verbeteren.
soldiering
Arbeiders werken met opzet onder hun maximale capaciteit.
Wat was Taylor’s conclusie over de oorzaken van soldiering?
De mens is van nature lui, beloning is niet gerelateerd aan productie en de vuistregels van trainingsmethoden zijn inefficiënt.
Wat voor oplossingen voor soldiering gaf Taylor?
Belonen, werk standaardiseren en betere selectie en training.
Hawthorne effect
= observer bias.
Individuen passen hun gedrag aan wanneer ze weten dat ze geobserveerd worden.
Wat was de oorsprong van signaaldetectietheorie?
De tweede wereldoorlog.
Wanneer kwam er aandacht voor ‘fitting the job to the worker’?
In de tweede wereldoorlog.
Bij welke periode hoort het ‘fitting the worker to the job’?
De industriële revolutie.
What are the two kinds of attention?
- Selective attention.
- Divided attention.
Selective attention
The ability to focus on certain sources of information and ignore others.
Divided attention
The ability to do more than one thing at once.
Executive control
The strategies that a person adopts in different task environments to control the flow of information and task performance.
Mental workload
An estimate of the cognitive demands of an operator’s duties.
What are the two types of models of attention?
- Bottleneck models
- Resource models
What are the two types of bottleneck models?
- Early-selection
- Late-selection
What are the two types of resource models?
- Single resource
- Multiple resource
Bottleneck models
Models of attention that specify a particular stage in the information processing sequence where the amount of information to which we can attend is limited.
Resource models
Models of attention that view attention as a limited-capacity resource that can be allocated to one or more tasks.
When does performance get worse in bottleneck models?
When the information stuck at the bottleneck increases.
What is early and late in the bottleneck models?
Early is closer to perception, later is closer to response.
When does performance get worse in resource models?
When the amount of resource decreases.
Executive control models
Models of attention that view performance decrease as a consequence of the need to coordinate different aspects of human information processing, a 3rd class of attention models.
Filter theory
An early-selection bottlemeneck model that captures the phenomena that ‘it’s difficult to attend to more than one message at a time and little remembered about unattended message’. Unwanted/-attended info is filtered before identification.
Filter-attenuation model
An early-selection bottleneck model that attenuates the incoming information, so does not block unattended information entirely.
Late-selection model
A bottleneck model that puts the block filter after identification and says that identified information decays rapidly if not attended.
Load theory
As the information processing shifts from early to late selection, more information is gathered from irrelevant sources, requiring more effort to focus on relevant sources. Place of selection depends on perceptual load.
Perceptual load
Number of stimuli and the rate at which they are presented.
Unitary-source models
Attention models that view attention as a limited-capacity resource that can be applied to a variety of processes and tasks.
What do unitary-resource models say about multi-tasking?
Simultaneous execution of tasks is easy unless the capacity of resources is exceeded. Then the processing system needs to make an allocation strategy depending on intentions and evaluations of demands on resources in that moment.
Probe technique
A method that uses two tasks, one priming and one secondary task. Secondary task is usually a tone or visual stimulus that is briefly presented during the primary task.
What do probe studies show about attention?
Dual-task procedures can provide sensitive measures of the momentary attentional demans on a person.
Malleable attentional resources
An aspect of resource theory, says that available capacity may fluctuate with the level of arousal and demands of the task.
Multiple-resource models
Attention models that propose that there’s no single pool of attentional resources. Distinct cognitive subsystems have their own limited pool of resources.
What components does Wickens & McCarley’s 3D model contain?
Stages of processing, information codes, input form, output form and visual channels.
What is the idea of Wickens & McCarley’s 3D model of attention?
The greater the extent to which 2 tasks require separate pools of resources, the more efficiently they can be combined.
EPIC theory (abbreviation)
Executive process interactive control theory
Executive process interactive control (EPIC) theory
A theory of multi-tasking that says that decrements in multi-task performance are due to strategies that people adopt to perform different tasks in different ways. Poses no limitation in capacity of central cogniitve processes.
Selective listening
A method where a target auditory message is presented together with another distractor auditory signal.
Covert orienting
Selectively attending to a location in the visual field that is different from the fixation point.
Endogenous orienting
A shift from attention that is initiated voluntarily by the individual.
Exogenous orienting
A shift in attention that initiated involuntarily by rapid onset or perceived motion of a stimulus.
Inhibition of return
The phenomenon that if the time between the cue and target stimulus is more than 300 ms, responses to the target presented in uncued locations are faster than to targets in cued locations.
POC (abbreviation)
performance operating characteristic
What does the POC-curve describe?
The tradeoff in dual-task performance.
Independence point (P)
A point on the POC-curve that described the performance when the two tasks could be performed together as efficiently as when alone.
Performance efficiency
The distance between the POC-curve and the independence point P. Indicates how efficiently the tasks can be performed together.
Cost of concurrence
The difference between performance of 1 task and dual-task performance where all resources are devoted to that one task.
Yerkes-Dodson law
Performance is an inverted U-shaped function of arousal level.
What happens to attention when arousal level is high?
It becomes more focused and the range of cues used to guide attention become more restricted.
Name the 2 important effects of arousal level on attention:
- perceptual narrowing
- vigilance decrement
Perceptual narrowing
The restriction of attention that occurs under high arousal levels.
Vigilance
Sustained attention
Vigilance task
A task that requires detection of relatively infrequent signals that occur at unpredictable times. Performance decreases over time.
Workload
The total amount of work that a person or group of people is to perform over a given period of time.
Mental workload
The amount of mental work / effort necessary to perform a task in a given period of time.
What is the purpose in a mental workload assessment?
To maintain workload at a level that will allow acceptable performance.
What are the four major empirical techniques used for workload assessment?
- Primary task measures
- Secondary task measures
- Physiological measures
- Subjective assessment.
What two types of techniques are used for workload assessment?
- analytical techniques
- empirical techniques
Empirical techniques
Used in workload assessment to measure and assess workload directly in an operational system or simulated environment.
Analytical techniques
Used for workload assessment, predict workload demands early in the system development process.
Primary task measures
A workload assessment method that directly examines the performance of the operator or of the overall system.
Secondary task measures
Workload assessment method based on the logic of dual-task performance. Measures the degree to which performance on either the primary or secondary task deteriorates in the dual-task situation relative to when each task is performed alone.
Which is more sensitive: primary task or secondary task measures?
Secondary task measures.
Loading task paradigm
A method where operators are told to maintain performance on the secondary task even if the primary task performance suffers.
Subsidiary task paradigm
Method where operators are told to maintain performance on primary task at the expense of the secondary task.
What is the major benefit of psychophysiological measures in workload assessment?
They can provide online measurement of the dynamic changes in workload.
What two classes do psychophysiological measures fall into?
- measuring general arousal
- measuring brain activity
Pupillometry
The measurement of pupil diameter, this indicates the amoundmt of attentional resources used to perform a task.
P300
Can be interpreted as workload,a positive signal 300 ms after event. Latency is index of stimulus-evaluation difficulty.
Cooper-Harper scale
A standardized measure of subjective mental workload, measures overall workload.
What methods estimate distinct aspects of workload?
the NASA task load index and the subjective workload index
SWAT (abbreviation)
subjective workload assessment technique
SWAT
Workload assessment method that lets operators judge workload using a card-sorting procedure. 27 possible card combinations ara analysed.
What 5 analytical techniques for workload assessment are discussed in the book?
- comparison
- expert opinion
- mathematical models
- task analysis methods
- simulation models
PRP (abbreviation)
psychological refractory period
Psychological refractory period (PRP)
The period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.
Hoe kan PRP worden verkort?
Dor kennis over de tweede stimulus, oefening of compatibiliteit.
Hoe meten we mentale belasting?
Door naar prestatie als functie van de moeilijkheid van een taak te kijken.
Wat zijn nadelen van een single-task onderzoek?
Is alleen gevoelig wanneer limiet van mentale capaciteit is bereikt, meet niet of prestatie gelijk blijft bij meer inspanning.
Wat zijn nadelen van een dual-task onderzoeksmethode?
De tweede taak kan interferen met de hoofdtaak, of slecht gekozen zijn, of is niet altijd haalbaar.
Wat zijn nadelen van fysiologische maten voor mentale belasting?
Gevoelig voor vermoeidheid, lichtniveau, fysieke activiteit.
Automatic processing
Vereist geen aandacht, is parallel, moeilijk te vergeten of veranderen, ongevoelig voor mentale belasting en snel.
Controlled processing
Vereist aandacht, is serieel, makkelijk te veranderen, gevoelig voor mentale belasting en langzaam.
Hoe kun je het effect van aandachtsverdeling op prestatie meten?
met een POC-curve.
Response-selection error
When perception and cognition are accomplished flawelessly, but still the inappropriate action is taken.
What 3 processes happen between onset of stimulus and the completion of response to that stimulus?
- Identification of stimulus
- Reponse selection
- Response execution
Response selection
How quickly and accurately people can determine which response they are to make to a stimulus.
Simple reaction task
Situations in which a single response must be made to a stimulus event.
What are the two types of errors commonly made on a go/no go task?
- Omission error
- Comission error
Choice reaction tasks
Situations in which one of several possible responses could be made to a stimulus.
What does the time to make a response in the choice reaction task depend on?
On how accurate the choice must be.
Speed-accuracy tradeoff
A function showing different combinations of speed and accuracy for a single choice situation.
Information theory about information:
Expresses the amount of information (H) in a set of stimuli or responses as a function of the number of possible alternatives and their probabilities.
Hick-Nymann law
Reaction time is a linear function of the amount of information in the stimulus set.
What is the equation of the Hick-Hyman law?
Reaction time = a + b [ T(S,R) ]
with
a = constant, sensory & motor factors
b = time to transmit one bit of info
T(S,R) = info transmitted between stimulus and response
stimulus-response compatibility
Phenomenon that responses are faster and more accurate for pairings of stimulus sets and response sets that correspond naturally than for those that don’t.
Simon effect
The influence of the spatial correspondence between the locations of stimuli and the responses. A special case of S-R compatibility that arises when the location of the stimulus is irrelevant to the response that is to be made.
Structural similarity
A way in which stimuli and responses can be similar that has nothing to do with conceptual or physical similarity. Ex: 1-2-3 and A-B-C.
Medisch model
Gaat uit van het beeld dat de mens met beperking afwijkt van de norm hoe de meeste mensen zijn. Beperking moet door dokters, hulpverleners en andere deskundigen geminimaliseerd worden.
Sociaal model
Gaat uit van het beeld dat de mens met beperking net als iedereen een variant van de mens is. Gedrag en omgeving moeten ontwikkeld worden zodat zoveel mogelijk mensen mee kunnen doen.
Uit welke twee componenten bestaat inclusief ontwerpen?
- Co-creatie
- Toegankelijkheid
Welke 3 vormen van toegankelijkheid worden meegenomen in inclusief ontwerpen?
- Digitaal
- Sociaal
- Cognitief
DSA (abbreviation)
design for social accessibility
Frequentie
f, het aantal trillingen per seconde gemeten in Herz. Eigenschap van geluid.
Intensiteit
I, energie in signaal gemeten in decibels. eigenschap van geluid
Golflengte
lambda = v/f, de voortplantingssnelheid van geluid.
Wat is de drempel van het menselijk gehoor in intensiteit?
0 dB
Klankkleur
Ook wel timbre, ontstaat wanneer frequenties gemengd worden. Bepaald door harmonische inhoud van het signaal.
Wat is de subjectieve kwaliteit van intensiteit?
Loudness
Fletcher-Munson curve
Laat zien dat voor een hogere frequentie een lagere amplitude nodig is om dezelfde luidheid waar te nemen.
Loudness
Een functie van intensiteit, wordt beïnvloed door frequentie en tijd (adaptatie) en door de kritische bandbreedte van een geluid.
Scherpte (geluid)
hoge frequencties
Roughness (geluid)
Sterke modulatie in intensiteit.
cognitive lock-up
The tendency of operators to deal with disturbances sequentially and ignore higher priority tasks if they require switching tasks.
Earcons
Abstracte geluiden waarvan de betekenis moet worden geleerd.
Auditory icons
bekende geluiden met stereotype betekenissen.
Sonificatie
Vertaling van de over te brengen informatie naar het akoestische domein.
Wat is human error volgens Frank Klap?
Een gevolg, geen oorzaak. Het is geen intentie om te falen: de actie wijkt af van de intentie.
Dual-route dimensional overlap model
A model in which a stimulus automatically activates the most compatible response, regardless of whether or not that response is the correct one. If the automatic response is not the same aws the one identified by the intentional route, then it must be inhibited before the correct response can be eecuted.
What explains the Simon effect?
Inhibition of the automatically activated response when it conflicts with the correct response.
Theory of Event Coding
Poses structures event codes/files: temporary, linked collection of features that define an event. A stimulus and its associated response are linked in an event file, and thus less available for other perceptions and actions.
S-C-R compatibility
A term to emphasize the central processes. C = mediating processes, they reflect the operator’s mental model of the task.
Ideomoter feedback
The sensations resulting from an action.
When do stimuli and responses have high ideomotor compatibility?
When the modality of the stimulus is the same as the ideomotor feedback from the response.
Stroop effect
Occurs when the word and the ink color of written colors conflict. when naming the color of the word, people say the color that is written instead of the ink color.
What is the difference between the Stroop and the Simon effect?
The Stroop effect seems to arise from conflicting stimulus dimensions, and the Simon effect fro conflicting response dimensions.
Eriksen Flanker effect
When finding a single letter that is among other letters, participants respond slower if one target is surrounded by other targets than if one target is surrounded by non-targets.
grip patterns
The limb movements and finger placements that people use to grasp and manipulate an object.
What are grip patterns affected by?
- The properties of the object for which a person is reaching.
- The intended use of the object.
Population stereotype
When most people would intuitively make an association.
Name the four principles that determine the preferred diplay-control relationship:
- Clockwise-to-right/up principle
- Warrick’s principle
- Clockwise-to-increase principle
- Scale-side principle
Warrick’s principle
When the control is at one side of the display, the pointer should move in the same direction as the side of the control nearest the display.
Scale-side principle
The indicator is expected to move in the same direction as the side of the control that is next to the display’s scale/
Visual field compatibility
Display movement that mirrors the control movement while the person looks at the control.
Control-display compatibility
The actual direction of movement of the control relative to the display.
Visual-trunk compatibility
When the control movement is in the same direction as the display movement relative to the operator’s trunk.
Compatibiliteit
De mate waarin de reactie die een stimulus opwekt een resultaat oplevert overeenkomstig met het verwachte resultaat.
Hoe kun je compatibiliteit vergroten?
Door bij het ontwerp rekening te houden met de specificaties en verwachtingen van de gebruiker zodat er een adequate en snelle vertaling van stimulus naar respons is.
Waarom is een goede compatibiliteit belangrijk?
Een snelle en adequate vertaling van perceptie naar actie zorgt voor kortere reactietijden, minder fouten en lagere mentale belasting.
Welke vier typen compatibiliteit onderscheiden we?
- Spatial
- Modality
- Movement
- Conceptual
Warrick’s principle geldt alleen als…
de knop naast de display staat.
Scale-side principle geldt als…
de indicator naast, onder of boven het display staat.
Waardoor kan compatibiliteit vergroot worden?
Door goed gebruik van mapping en kennis van de gebruiker.
Hoe kan compatibiliteit gemeten worden?
Aan de hand van prestatiematen zoals RT en nauwkeurigheid, een confusiematrix voor symbolen of door fysiologische metingen.
Masked threshold
A threshold determined relative to some level of background noise. The signal intensity level required for 75% correct selection of the noise burst when one burst contains signal and one doesn’t.
Likelihood alarm
Warns of an impending event, but sounds different depending on how likely the event is.
At what speed do sound waves travel through the air?
340 m/s
Intensity is measured in…
units of watts per square meter
Sound pressure
The root mean square deviation from the static pressure, a function of the difference between the maximal and minimal pressured.
What does it mean that intensity follows an inverse square law?
Measured intensity is proportional to one over the square of the distance from the source.
Harmonics
Integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
White noise
Has an equal average intensity for all component frequencies.
Wideband noise
Has frequencies across most or all of the auditory spectrum.
Narrowband noise
Has only a restricted range of frequencies.
How is sound collected in humans?
By the pinna, the outer ear shaped part.
What does the pinna do?
Collect sound from the environment and amplifies or attenuates sounds, playing a role in localization.