Toddlerhood Flashcards
cognitive development, physical development and social and emotional development
Does physical growth slow down or speed up during toddlerhood?
During the second and third years of life, physical growth slows down from its blazing pace of the first year, but it remains more rapid than it will be at any later time of life.
Risk of not growing (body) or cognitively in developed countries because of lack of nutrition once start on food
Stunting
kwashiorkor disease
severe protein deficiency leads to a range of symptoms such as lethargy, skin lesions and thinning hair. Improved protein can relieve symptoms but damage can’t be repaired.
The most crucial micronutrient deficiency worldwide
Iodine
Lack of iodine in young children..
In young children, a lack of iodine inhibits cognitive development, resulting in an estimated IQ (intelligence quotient) deficiency of 10–15 points
Brain development (growth) in toddlerhood
Brain continues rapid growth through toddlerhood
What happens to synapses during brain development in toddlerhood
no production of new brain cells but an increase in synaptic density (increase in neural connections)
when is peak production of new synapses is reached in frontal lobes in toddlerhood
3 years of age
When peak production of synapses is reached in frontal lobes during toddlerhood what are the qualities obtained?
reasoning, planning and creativity
synaptic pruning
In synaptic pruning, the connections between neurons become fewer but more efficient, with the synapses that are used becoming more developed, while unused synapses wither away
What is possible through synaptic pruning?
Brain plasticity. If synapses could only form once, learning could not be impacted by children’s new experiences
EEG (electroencephalogram)
Measures electrical brain activity
What allows researches to measure brain activity of a toddler through EEG
synaptic firing
fMIR (functional magnetic resonance imaging),
Requires a person to last still inside a machine that uses a magnetic field to record changes in blood flow and oxygen use in the brain in response to different types of stimulation such as music
what can fMRI do that EEG can not?
fMRI can detect activity in any part of the brain not just the cerebral cortex
Why do toddlers wake during the night?
Teething and they are more aware of being alone at night than infants
In traditional cultures, how long do infants sleep with their mothers
until todderlhood
what dramatic changes happen regarding motor development with toddlers
start walking, running, climbing and jumping
What fine motor skills do toddlers achieve?
place small object into larger object and hold cups or build blocks
Where does the word toddler originate from
when children first begin to walk – spread feet apart and take small stiff leg steps shifting weight from one leg to other
what can toddlers achieve at 12 months of age?
right or left hand preferecne
Why do toddlers in traditional cultures allowed slightly more mobility?
they are not held as much
Garret is approaching toddlerhood, in the next year he should be able to?
hold a cup and scribble with crayons
when do toddlers show readiness of toilet training?
24 months of age
when should toddlers begin to become toilet trained according to peadeatricians?
when they are ready
weaning toddlers off breast milk in AUS
talking to toddler to explain whats happening
Weaning off breast milk in bali
putting bitter tasting herb on breast
weaning off breast milk in Turkey
putting tomato paste on breast
weaning off breast milk in Fulani
grandmother breastfeeding baby but has no milk
what has been shown to be correlated with the timing of toilet training in some western cultures?
education level of the parents
what is a sign of being ready for toilet training in western cultures
starting to do things independently
based on research, what is likely holding up the toilet training process?
some children take months or years to become fully toilet trained, the earlier the training begins, the longer it takes
why is it more challenging to wean a toddler off breast milk than an infant?
the toddler is more socially aware and has a greater capacity to exercise intentional behaviour
Nandranie is a toddler from a traditional culture; she would likely be weaned by?
customary practices
Describe the typical changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth.
Toddlers’ physical growth continues at a pace that is slightly reduced from infancy but is nevertheless faster than at any later time of life. Toddlers in developing countries often suffer protein and micronutrient deficiencies that impede their physical and cognitive development.
Describe the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity.
The brain’s synaptic density peaks at the end of toddlerhood, followed by many years of synaptic pruning. The two most common methods of measuring brain activity are the EEG and the fMRI.
Describe the changes in sleeping patterns and sleeping arrangements that take place during toddlerhood.
Toddlers’ episodes of night waking increase from 18 to 24 months of age, in part due to teething of molars. In traditional cultures, toddlers sleep with their mothers until the next child is born, after which they sleep with other family members.
Describe the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood.
In their gross motor development, toddlers learn to walk, run, climb and kick a ball. Toddlers in traditional cultures are often restricted in their movements to protect them from danger. Advances in fine motor development include holding a cup and building a tower of blocks. In their third year, toddlers may be able to brush their teeth, with some assistance.
Compare and contrast the process and timing of toilet training in developed countries and traditional cultures.
Children vary widely in the timing of learning toilet training, but most are toilet trained by the end of toddlerhood. In traditional cultures, toddlers usually learn controlled elimination through observing and imitating older children.
what is deferred imitation
the ability to repeat actions observed at an earlier time
why is deferred imitation likely to be more evident as toddlers age
because hippocampus is more mature than in infancy
what is hippocampus important for
long term memory encoding and recall
how do children categorise differently when they reach 2 years of age
they can categorise objects based on their qualities or functions and not just physical appearance
Saffolding in Toddlerhood (Vygotsky’s cultural theory of cognitive development)
degree of assistance provided to the learning gradually decreases as the learners skills develop
the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development)
Difference between skills or tasks that children can complete alone and those they are capable of completing if guided by an adult or peer
private speech (Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development)
self-guiding comments children make to themselves as they learn in the zone of proximal development
tertiary circular reactions (piaget)
purposefully taking an action to see what it does and then repeating it
what children avoid making the A not B error they..
have attained object permanence
according to Vygotsky ______ is required for cognitive development
social interaction
according to vygotsky, children learn best if the instruction they are provided is _____
within the zone of proximal development
infinite generativity
the ability to take word symbols of a language and combine them in a number of ways
Broca’s area in left frontal lobe
language comprehensions
wernickes area in left temporal lobe
language comprehension
language acquisition device
Chomsky proposed children are born with LAD that enables them to perceive and grasp grammatical rules
holophrase
a single word used to represent a whole sentence
overextension
a single word that represents a variety of related objects
underextension
applying a general word to a specific object
fast mapping
learning an object for a word after only being told it one time
telegraphic speech
two word phrases that strip away connecting words such as ‘the’
overregularisation
applying grammatical rules even to words that are exceptions to the rule
when it comes to learning language, the most significant difference between apes and humans is ____
the inability of apes to generate word symbols in an infinite number of ways
Nona was in a serious car accident and suffered damage to her Broca’s area. what is likely to result?
she will have difficulty producing speech
what is an example of overextension
a child calling all men ‘dada’
Joaquin was hungry and pointed to a glass on the counter and said ‘juice’. This is an example of?
holophrases
Why is direct stimulation of language discouraged in some cultures?
Some cultures hold that it is not necessary to speak directly to young children because they are not able to converse productively.
what are the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget’s theory.
According to Piaget, the ability for mental representations develops in the second half of the second year and is the basis for important aspects of later cognitive functioning, including problem solving and language. Object permanence also reaches maturity. Deferred imitation and categorisation also require mental representation.
Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and contrast it with Piaget’s theory
Vygotsky emphasised the cultural basis of cognitive development in childhood. He proposed concepts such as scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to describe how children obtain cultural knowledge from adults.
Summarise the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language.
In humans, the larynx position makes spoken language possible. Humans also have areas in the brain specifically devoted to language functions. Anatomically, the capacity for language appears to have first developed in early hominids 2 million years ago
Describe the milestones in language development that take place during the toddler years.
At 18 months, most toddlers speak about 50 words, usually in holophrases. By 24 months, most speak about 200 words and combine some words in telegraphic speech. By their third birthdays, most can easily speak in full sentences
Identify how parents’ stimulation of toddlers’ language varies across cultures and evaluate how these variations relate to language development.
Cultures vary widely in how much they encourage toddlers’ language development, from stimulating language use through direct interactions, to allowing toddlers to be present among conversing adults but otherwise not speaking to them much, to actually discouraging them from talking. Regardless of cultural practices, toddlers generally learn to use their language well by age 3
sociomoral emotions
emotions based of cultural standards of right and wrong
What is a sociomoral emotion?
guilt
display of pride would be discouraged in what country
China
researches dabbed a red spot on noses of toddlers and asked them to look in the mirror they were testing _____
self-recognition
strange situation experiment
Strange Situation The Strange Situation is a series of introductions, separations and reunions involving the child, the mother and an unfamiliar person. It was devised for toddlers, aged 12–24 months, because this is an age by which attachment has developed to a point where it can be assessed.
Secure attachment.
healthy attachment where the child uses the parent as a secure base
Insecure–avoidant attachment
little or no interaction, no response to departure or return
Insecure–resistant attachment.
less likely to explore when mother is present and grow distress when leaves room. go to mother on return but pushing away when mother tries to comfort them
Disorganised–disoriented attachment
detached child possibly scared. common with austism down syndrome or abuse
internal working model
in toddlerhood children have expectations about what kind of care they will receive from their mothers
secure attachment theory is characterised by____
a willingness of the child to use the caregiver as a secure base to explore the environment
which best describes securely attatched
cries upon separation and greets mother with a smile on return and wanting to be help
In school, Brice showed problems such as hostility and cognitive deficits. later on in uni, he was diagnosed with various types of psychopathology. based on research, he most likely had a ______ attachment classification
disorganised-disorientated
what is different about the amygdala in children with ASD
it is larger
Josh is a toddler who lives in new Zealand. His father would most likely be observed in which of the following activities with him?
Playing with him
Research on the sibling relationships during the toddler years has found that_____
Toddlers’ attachments to their siblings to their siblings tend to be secondary attachments rather than primary attachments.
Marcel was diagnosed with autism at the age of 3. Which behaviour would you be most likely to see if you observed him in his day care classroom
A preoccupation with repetitive movements.
what has research shown about screen media
It can have a positive effect
Describe how emotional development advances during toddlerhood and identify the impact of culture on these changes
Sociomoral emotions developing in toddlerhood include guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy and pride. Toddlers in Western cultures have occasional tantrums, perhaps because they have a more developed sense of intentionality. However, tantrums are rare outside the West where cultures place less emphasis on self-expression.
Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood.
The birth of the self in toddlerhood is indicated in the development of self-recognition and self-reflection. Toddlers begin to use personal pronouns such as ‘I’ and ‘me’ and to refer to themselves by name
Distinguish between sex and gender and summarise the evidence for the biological basis of gender development.
Sex is the biological status, whereas gender refers to the cultural categories. Gender identity first develops during toddlerhood as children begin to identify themselves and others as male or female. The biological basis of gender is indicated in evolutionary theory, ethological studies and hormonal studies. However, cultural socialisation is also an essential factor
Describe the essential features of attachment theory and identify the four classifications of attachment.
In formulating attachment theory, Bowlby emphasised the evolutionary need for a person who would provide protection and care during the vulnerable early years of life. Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment quality, and concluded that it showed three distinct types of attachment: secure, insecure–avoidant and insecure–resistant. Disorganised–disoriented is a fourth classification, added by later researchers.
identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers’ attachment to their mothers and explain what effect attachment quality has on development
The quality of attachment is based mainly on how sensitive and responsive a mother is towards her child. Research indicates some relationship between attachment quality in toddlerhood and later development, but also shows that the internal working model established in toddlerhood can be modified by later experiences. Attachment quality is also influenced by infant temperament, and by reciprocal or bidirectional influences between parent and child
Compare and contrast the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers in traditional cultures and developed countries
Fathers in traditional cultures usually serve as family providers but are remote from toddlers’ emotional lives, although there are exceptions. Across cultures, fathers tend to provide less physical and emotional care than mothers, but this is changing as gender roles and work responsibilities change
Describe relationships with siblings, peers and friends during toddlerhood
Across cultures, toddlers often react negatively to the birth of a younger sibling. When toddlers themselves are the younger siblings, their older siblings enjoy playing with them more than when they were infants, but conflict tends to rise as toddlers become more capable of asserting their own desires. With friends, toddler play takes a variety of forms. Toddlers’ friendships often have qualities similar to friendships at older ages, including emotional closeness
Identify the characteristics of autism and recognise how autism affects prospects for children as they grow to adulthood.
Autism is a developmental disorder marked by a lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development and repetitive behaviour. The social and language deficits of autism make social and cognitive development problematic in childhood and beyond.
identify the typical rates of screen media use in toddlerhood and explain some consequences.
Toddlers in many countries use screen media every day. Television watching and other screen media in toddlerhood may promote prosocial behaviour if the content is prosocial, but there are concerns about the displacement effect, especially for children under 18 months old.
displacement effect
using screen time instead of doing other things like physical activity.
