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Biology? > Tissue Structure And Function > Flashcards

Tissue Structure And Function Flashcards

Epithelium, muscle, connective, nervous

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1
Q

What type of control is exhibited in smooth muscle?

A

Involuntary control

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2
Q

Where can smooth muscle be found?

A

In the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach and bladder.

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3
Q

What’s the proteins in muscle fibres called?

A

Actin and myosin

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4
Q

What’s a myelin sheath and what cells is it made from?

A

Schwann cells form the myelin sheath and this acts as an insulator to stop the electrical signal from leaving the cell too soon

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5
Q

What is the sarcomere?

A

Unit of contraction between muscle fibres

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6
Q

What are excitatory nerve impulses

A

Propagates (produces) impulses and stimulates brain

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7
Q

What are inhibitory nerve impulses?

A

Inhibits impulses and calms the brain

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8
Q

What is acetylcholine and roles?

A

Chief neurotransmitter
Controls muscles
Dilates blood vessels
Controls heart heart

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9
Q

What is homestasis?

A

Maintain internal environment despite external examples

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10
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

Regulation of temp

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11
Q

What is osmoregulation?

A

Regulation of water

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12
Q

What temperature do enzymes work best at?

A

37 degrees Celsius

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13
Q

What is ADH?

A

Anti diuretic hormone

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14
Q

Where are the osmoreceptors?

A

In the hypothalamus

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15
Q

What gland produces ADH?

A

Pituitary gland

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16
Q

What does ADH do?

A

Causes the kidneys to absorb water, to keep water in the body

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17
Q

What does less ADH mean?

A

Less absorption of water so more urine produced

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18
Q

What are the main facts of capillaries?

A

One cell thick
Diffusion of oxygen and minerals to cells
Microscopic vessels
Take waste products away

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19
Q

What detects changes in blood temperature

A

The brain

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20
Q

What is sarcoplasmic reticulum responsible for?

A

Stores calcium ions which controls ATPase activity so this controls the contraction of muscles

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21
Q

What is the H zone

A

Myosin only

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22
Q

What is the Z line

A

Different sarcomere, line/space between them

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23
Q

What is the A band?

A

Both actin and myosin

Must overlap to contract

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24
Q

What is the M line?

A

Holds together the myosin filament and actin

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25
Q

What’s a heart’s pacemaker?

A

Sinus node continually generating electrical impulses (normal rhythm)
The specialised cells are at the top chamber (atrium) causing it to contract

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26
Q

What are the features of veins?

A 
Large lumen
Thin
Elastic wall
Carry deoxygenated blood back to heart
Low blood pressure
Has valves for blood flow
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27
Q

What are the features of arteries?

A

Small lumen
Thick elastic walls
Oxygenate blood
High blood pressure

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28
Q

What are the features of capillaries?

A

One cell thick
Microscopic vessels
Diffusion for gas exchange and minerals
Arterioles and venules

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29
Q

What are the types of Epithelial tissue

A

Squamous
Columnar ciliated
Endothelium

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30
Q

Features of squamous cells?

Where are they found?

A 
Flat
Surface of skin
Lining if hollow organs
Lining respiratory and digestive tracts
Diffusion and filtration
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31
Q

Features of ciliated epithelium?

Where are they found?

A

Made of columnar ciliated
Cillia (Hair-like)
Mucus secreting goblets cells
Move particles out of the body

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32
Q

Features of endothelium cells?

Where are they found?

A

Line every blood vessels one cell thick

Heart chamber and lymphatic vessels which carry excess blood plasma around the body

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33
Q

Features of coboidal cells?

Where are they found?

A

Kidneys
Overies
Secretion and absorption

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34
Q

How do cardiac muscles tissues join together?

A

By intercalated disc

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35
Q

Features of fast twitch muscles

A 
More powerful movement
Shorter duration
Fatigue
Anaerobic
Less blood supply (less capillaries)
Less myoglobin which stores oxygen
Less mitochondria so less ATP

More lactic acid produced causing muscles to fatigue

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36
Q

Features of slow twitch muscles

A 
Fatigue resistant 
Smaller movements
More mitochondria for ATP
Red, more blood supply
More myoglobin which stores oxygen

Less lactic acid produce so less fatigue

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37
Q

What is the process of phagocytoesis mean?

A

White blood cells engulf dead cells and bacteria

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38
Q

What things/organs make up respiratory system?

A 
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
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39
Q

What is the respiratory system responsible for?

A

Inspiration

Expiration

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40
Q

What are the features of alveoli?

A

Lots of capillaries for gas exchange
Moist surface to allow gases to diffuse more easily
Large surface area
One cell thick

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41
Q

What is the threshold for action potential?

A

-55Mv

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42
Q

What is the resting for action potential?

A

-70Mv

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43
Q

What lifestyle factors cause atherosclerosis?

A

Lack of exercise

Smoking

Drinking

Diet with too much fat

Stress

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44
Q

How do pesticides kill small animals?

A

Acetylcholine builds up in cleft

Therefore constant depolarisation of post synaptic membrane

So muscles contract permanently

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45
Q

Where are ciliated columnar cells found in the body?

A

Trachea and bronchi

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46
Q

What are key features of ciliated columnar cells?

A

Lots of mitochondria
Cilia (tiny hairs)
Goblet cells produce mucus

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47
Q

What does COPD stand for

A

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

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48
Q

What does COPD cause?

A

It causes the cilia to slow down and stop beating and they eventually die

therefore mucus builds up and the airways become clogged up

Therefore you cough to move this mucus

But lots of coughing ruptures the thin epithelial cells in the alveoli

This means less gas exchange can take place

And a good place for pathogens to invade

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49
Q

What is the main cause of COPD?

A

Smoking

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50
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A 
Atherosclerosis
Fatty deposits (atheroma) can block the artery or lead to a blood clot blocking it (thrombosis)
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51
Q

What major diseases can atherosclerosis cause?

A

Coronary disease

strokes

Angina (short periods of tight chest pain)

Heart attacks

Peripheral arterial disease (where blood supply in your legs is blocked)

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52
Q

Describe how atherosclerosis develops?

A

The endothelial tissue lining is damaged by smoking or high blood pressure

Low density of lipoproteins (LDL cholesterol) accumulates in the artery wall

This causes inflammation so white blood cells move into the area

This leads to a build up made of LDL cholesterol,  the white blood cells, calcium salt and fibres
Plaque formation (atheroma)

This can lead to an increase in blood pressure and this will damage the endothelial tissue even more

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53
Q

Describe how smoking can lead to atherosclerosis

A

The artery becomes narrow and less elastic

Blood flow is restricted

There is a bigger risk of blood clotting

Blood pressure rises and this causes the endothelial tissue to be damaged

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54
Q

What are the types of asexual reproduction?

A

Binary fission

Budding

Fragmentation

Parthenogenesis

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55
Q

What is reproduction?

A

The process by which an organism makes offspring

56
Q

What is the fertilised egg with sperm called

A

Zygote

57
Q

How many chromosomes does a egg have?

A

23 chromosomes

58
Q

Where does binary fission occur?

A

In bacteria

59
Q

Where does budding occur?

A

In yeast

60
Q

Where does fragmentation occur?

A

Star fish

61
Q

Where does Parthenogenesis occur?

A

In reptiles

62
Q

How does Parthenogenesis occur?

A

It develops from one egg to embryo without fertilisation

63
Q

How does fragmentation occur?

A

Parts break off and become an embryo

64
Q

How does budding occur?

A

Parent cell has a growth and it falls off and becomes an embryo

65
Q

How does binary fission occur?

A

Like mitosis but in bacteria

Copy genetic info and divides to become a new cell

66
Q

What is a haploid?

A

Cell that contains 23 chromosomes

67
Q

What is a diploid

A

Cell that contains 46 chromosomes

68
Q

What is the flagellum for?

A

Motility

69
Q

What is the acrosome and function?

A

Head of the sperm cell

Carries digestive enzymes that break the outer membrane of the egg cell

70
Q

What does the plasma membrane do for the flagellum?

A

Same as normal plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell

71
Q

What is the mid piece for on a sperm cell?

A

Packed with lots of mitochondria to provide energy for the flagellum

72
Q

What does LH mean?

A

Luteinizing hormone

73
Q

What does FSH mean?

A

Follicular stimulating hormone

74
Q

Where is LH and FSH produced

A

Pituitary gland

75
Q

What are key features of egg cell?

A

Largest cell
Non-motive
Carries genetic information

Provides nutrition to embryo until it sinks into the uterus and placenta takes over

76
Q

What is the zona pellicide?

A

Glyprotein layer

Barrier to extra sperm

77
Q

What is the Corona radiata?

A

Follicular cell layer

Provides nourishment to the cell

78
Q

What is the cortical granules?

A

Prevents polyspermy

More than one sperm fertising the egg

79
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

When cytoplasm divides

80
Q

How many daughter cells do you get from meiosis

A

4 daughter cells

81
Q

What is meiosis?

A

A cell divides twice to produce 4 cells containing half the original DNA

82
Q

Which cells do meiosis?

A

Sperm and egg

83
Q

What cells do mitosis?

A

All cells but egg and sperm

84
Q

What is mitosis?

A

When a cell divides into 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical

85
Q

What is dopamine?

A

A neurotransmitter

86
Q

What happens in Parkinson’s disease and how is it caused?

A

Brain cells stop working properly and are lost over time

Decrease amount of dopamine leads to Parkinson’s disease

87
Q

When do the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease appear?

A

Symptoms appear when the brain can’t make enough dopamine to control movement properly

88
Q

What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?

A

Abnormal brain activity
Tremor (shaking)
Slowness of movement
Muscle stiffness

89
Q

What does L dopa do?

A

It crosses the blood brain barrier and is converted to dopamine

It increases the amount of dopamine stored or released by the presynaptic neuron, therefore normal levels of dopamine stimulate the postsynaptic neuron

90
Q

What is carbidopa?

A

Medication that prevents levodopa (L dopa) from being broken down before it reaches the brain

91
Q

What are the symptoms of atherosclerosis?

A

Chest pain

Pain in limbs where the artery might be blocked

Difficulty breathing

Fatigue

Confusion (if in brain)

Weak muscles

92
Q

What increases your risk of atherosclerosis?

A

Increasing age

Smoking

Diet high in fats

Lack of exercise

Overweight

Alcohol

Family history

Other conditions, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes

93
Q

What is the treatment to atherosclerosis?

A

Lifestyle changes
Medication- statin medications to control or lower cholesterol

Coronary angioplasty (stent placed in artery)

Coronary artery bypass grafting - arteries/veins from other areas of the body are used to bypass the affected artery

Carotid endarterectomy- remove plague from the carotid artery in the neck

94
Q

What is Carotid endarterectomy?

A

Remove plague from the carotid artery in the neck

95
Q

What is Coronary artery bypass grafting

A

Arteries/veins from other areas of the body are used to bypass the affected artery

96
Q

What is Coronary angioplasty?

A

stent placed in artery

97
Q

What are the risk factors of depression?

A

Being the victim of abuse/neglect

Experiencing difficult life events such as losing a job

Suffering from serious physical conditions such as cancer

Low self-esteem

98
Q

What happens if you have different levels of serotonin?

A

High levels - happy

Low levels - depression

Imbalance of serotonin - OCD, anxiety, panic attacks, anger management issues

99
Q

What is the treatment for depression?

A

Antidepressants medication - prevents serotonin from being reabsorbed by the body so levels are high

Mediate

Fresh air and sunlight

Exercise

100
Q

What tissues make up blood vessels?

A

Endothelial tissue

Endothelium

101
Q

What is the path nerve impulses take?

A

Receptors, sensory neurones, relay neurones (CNS), motor neurones, effectors

102
Q

What does depolarisation mean?

A

When the action potential becomes less negative than the outside.
With a potential difference of -50mV (threshold)

103
Q

What does polarised mean?

A

That the membrane is at resting potential -70mV

104
Q

What does saltatory conduction mean?

A

Saltatory conduction is the process of signal jumping when the action potential reaches a note of Ranvier
So sodium ions diffuse into the axon membrane they displace potassium ions

105
Q

Where does saltatory conduction occur?

A

Only happens in myelinated nerves

and it increases the speed of the action potential

106
Q

What affects the speed of action potential.

A

Axon diameter - the larger the axon the faster the conduction

Myelination of neuron - the nerve impulses travel faster if the neuron is myelinated

The number of synapses involved - the fewer synapses there are to cross the fast at the communication

107
Q

What is at the end of the presynaptic neuron?

A

The synaptic bulb

108
Q

What are the features of non myelinated nerves?

A

Small diameter

no myelin sheath

slow impulses

no nodes of Ranvier

transmits aches soreness and temperature changes

109
Q

What are features of myelinated nerves?

A

Large diameter

Have myelin sheath

fast impulses

Nodes of Ranvier

transmits sharp pains

110
Q

What does
Dog
Run
Home

Mean?

A

Depolarisation
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization

111
Q

What are channels function and how do they work?

A

They are voltage-gated which means they open and close at certain voltages to let ions in via diffusion

112
Q

What are pumps function and how do they work?

A

Pumps grab irons and make the move

The pumps need active transport to return the ions where they were at the start

113
Q

What happens in the first step of action potential?

A

A stimulus opens the sodium channels so Na+ ions diffuse into the cell and makes the voltage starts to rise above -70mV

114
Q

What is the second step of action potential?

A

Depolarization
When the voltage reaches the threshold 50mV the voltage gated sodium channels open

This causes lots of Na+ ions to enter the cells so the voltage rises rapidly to 30mV

115
Q

What is the third step of action potential?

A

Repolarisation

The sodium Na+ and potassium K+ gates open

This means the ions leave the cell and the voltage falls to -90mV

116
Q

What is the fourth step of action potential?

A

Hyperpolarisation

The pumps grab the sodium and potassium ions
and return the resting potential to -70mV

117
Q

What is statory conduction

A

The signal jumping from gap to gap in the nodes of Ranvier

The myelin sheath is an insulator which stops the Na+ ions entering the cell
so depolarization can’t occur there

118
Q

What happens when a muscle contracts?

A

The thin actin filaments move between the thicker myosin sing filaments which makes the sarcomere shorter

Special proteins on the myosin filements drag the actin filaments inwards

119
Q

What are myofibrils and their function?

A

Myofibrils are made up of sarcomeres

The function of myofibril is to perform muscle contraction

120
Q

What is a electrocardiogram?

A

ECG is a test that checks the hearts activity by measuring the electrical activity of the heart

121
Q

What is a electroencephalogram?

A

EEG is a test that measures the electrical activity of your brain

122
Q

What are the symptoms of COPD

A

Breathlessness

A persistent chesty cough - smokers cough

Frequent chest infections

Persistent wheezing

123
Q

What is emphysema?

A

Damage to the alveoli

124
Q

What is chronic bronchitis?

A

Long term inflammation of the airways

125
Q

What happens in emphysema?

What are some features of emphysema?

A

Alveoli stretch out of shape or rupture

Lungs lose their natural elasticity

Loss of the alveolar walls leads to decrease in elastic recoil leading to airflow limitation

Lungs lose their ability to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide

126
Q

What are the causes of emphysema?

A

Smoking

Air pollutants

Respiratory infections

Genetics - alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (a protein that protects the lungs)

127
Q

What are symptoms of emphysema?

A

Shortness of breath or dyspnoea

Chronic cough that produces mucus

Wheezing

Tightness in the chest

Fatigue

128
Q

What is chronic bronchitis?

A

Infection causes Inflammation of the airways

129
Q

What happens in chronic bronchitis?

What features does it have?

A

Infection causes airways to be inflammed

This irritation causes mucus to build up

The cilia become damaged and can’t move the mucus

Squamous epithelium thickens and blocks the airways causing breathing difficulty

The mucus contains pathogens and dirt that are stuck in the respiratory tract

130
Q

What are the symptoms of chronic bronchitis

A

Cough

Production of mucus

Fatigue

Shortness of breath

Slight fever and chills

Chest discomfort

131
Q

What causes chronic bronchitis?

A

Smoking

Air pollution

Dust or toxic gases in environment

Lung diseases (asthma, sinusitis, TB)

132
Q

What is the treatment of COPD?

A

No cure but treatment involves helping symptoms and preventing it getting worse

Stopping smoking

Inhalers

Pulmonary rehabilitation - a special programme of exercise and education

Surgery or lung transplant (rare)

133
Q

What are basal cells and function?

A

Type of epithelium

Differentiate into the other cell types to restore a healthy epithelial cells

134
Q

How do the alveoli become damaged in emphysema?

A

Inflammation is caused by smoking as it attracts phagocytic cells to the alveoli

These cells produce elastase which break down elastin and other proteins in the alveoli

135
Q

What happens if polyspermy occurs

A

If it happens the embryo doesn’t grow due to the imbalance of chromosomes

136
Q

What does l-dopa do?

A

Increases dopamine in the presynaptic neurone to release in the post-synaptic neuron

137
Q

What is the cell surface membrane of a skeletal muscle called?

A

Sarcolemma

Biology? (8 decks)

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