Thinking, Descisions, Intelligence And Language

Question 1

What is thinking? What are the 2 types of representations?

Answer 1

Thinking describes the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the real world. Analogically representations and symbolic representations.

Question 2

What are analogical and symbolic representations?

Answer 2

Analogical representations are representations containing some characteristics of what they represent (e.g. images). Symbolic representations are abstract representations, meaning they have no physical qualities to what they represent (e.g. words, numbers or ideas).

Question 3

What are concepts? What are the 2 models to describe the way we categorize?

Answer 3

Concepts are symbolic representations, categorizing or classifying related items.

The Prototype model describes that one looks for the “best example/s” that represent a category.
The Exemplar model proposes that there is no best representation in a concept and rather it is the examples of the category members that form a concept.

Question 4

What are schemas, scripts and stereotyping?

Answer 4

Schemas are a pattern of though or behavior that organizes information and the relationship among them. Scripts are a form of schema that outline the steps of a behaviors.
Stereotyping is a generalized belief about a group of people.

Question 5

What is decision-making?

Answer 5

Selecting a course of action or belief from several options.

Question 6

What is heuristics? What are the 2 types of heuristics?

Answer 6

Heuristics explains the unconscious, mental shortcuts we make in decision-making.

Availability heuristics describes the tendency to make a decision based on what most easily comes to mind.
Representativeness heuristics refers to the tendency that a person/object is put into a category based on their similarity to a prototype/category member.

Question 7

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 7

Confirmation bias occurs when one looks specifically for information that affirms their beliefs.

Question 8

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 8

Hindsight bias describes when one creates an after-the-fact explanation after their original opinion was wrong (“actually in hindsight”).

Question 9

What is anchoring bias?

Answer 9

Making judgements based off the first piece of information.

Question 10

What is framing effect? What is loss aversion?

Answer 10

Framing effect describes how the way information is presented can alter ones perception and choice.

Loss aversion refers the idea that in decision-making, one is more concern with costs than benefits. (Sometimes there is an arousal factor)

Question 11

What is base rate and how does it relate to representativeness heuristics?

Answer 11

Base rate describes the frequency of an event occurring. Sometimes we make judgements based on representativeness bias, however taking base rate into consideration can alter that judgement.

Question 12

What are the 4 biases in decision-making that can occur?

Answer 12

Confirmation bias, hindsight bias, anchoring bias and framing effect.

Question 13

What are integral emotions?

Answer 13

Emotions that are ‘integral’ to making a decision.

Question 14

What is affective forecasting? Do humans do this often?

Answer 14

The concept of predicting how one will feel in the future. No, humans fail to do this often and think more in the present.

Question 15

What are incidental affective states? What is the endowment effect? What is the appraisal tendency framework?

Answer 15

Incidental affective states describe the role of emotion impacting unrelated choices.
The endowment effect refers to the idea that humans think what is owned has an increased value.
The appraisal tendency framework theorizes that mood elicits tendencies.

Question 16

What are subgoals?

Answer 16

Small goals allowing one to tackle a problem in steps.

Question 17

What is restructuring?

Answer 17

When representing a problem in a novel/new way in order to solve it.

Question 18

What are mental sets? What is functional fixedness?

Answer 18

Mental sets are previous strategies used to solve a new problem. Functional fixedness is when one has a fixed idea on the function of an object.

Question 19

What the 4 types of conscious strategies in problem solving?

Answer 19

Algorithms, working backwards, making appropriate analogies, and insight (the “lightbulb” that switches on after suddenly finding a solution).

Question 20

What is maximizing/a maximizer and satisficing/a satisficer?

Answer 20

Maximizers look for the perfect choice in decision-making, whilst satisficers look for the “best enough” choice/a choice that fulfills ones minimum requirements.

Question 21

What is psychometric testing? What are the 2 types of testing?

Answer 21

Psychometric testing is measuring ones performance based on standardized tests. Either an achievement test (reflecting their current levels of skill and knowledge) or a aptitude test (predicting one’s future ability to perform a task/s).

Question 22

What is the common intelligence test for children?

Answer 22

Standford-Binet

Question 23

What is the common intelligence test for adults? What are the 2 components?

Answer 23

WAIS - Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale. Based on verbal (comprehension, vocabulary and general knowledge) and performance (non-verbal and reaction time) tasks.

Question 24

What is IQ and how is it measured?

Answer 24

IQ - Intelligence Quotient. Measured intelligence based on dividing one’s mental age to their actual age and multiplying by 100.

Question 25

What is the name of the intelligence test that uses analogies?

Answer 25

Miller Analogy Test

Question 26

What is factor analysis? What did it conclude about general intelligence?

Answer 26

Factor analysis is a statistical technique that clusters/factors items similar to one another.

Factoring a standard type of intelligence formed general intelligence (g). Results found correlations between (g) and performance in intelligence tests.

Question 27

What are the 2 types of intelligence? Which is associated with STM or LTM?

Answer 27

Fluid intelligence is the ability to understand abstract relationships and think logically without any prior knowledge. (E.g. information processing - STM)

Crystallized intelligence is the knowledge acquired through experience. (E.g. vocabulary and culture - LTM)

Question 28

What are savants?

Answer 28

Savants describe people with some intellectual disability (e.g. autism), yet have an extreme talent in something (e.g. music, art).

Question 29

What are the 3 types of intelligence in Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence (1999)?

Answer 29

Analytical intelligence (similar to psychometric testing), creative intelligence (the ability to gain insight and solve novel problems), and practical intelligence (how one manages everyday task, if they make good judgements, leadership abilities and more).

Question 30

What are the 4 ways that measure emotional intelligence?

Answer 30

1) How one manages their emotions
2) How one uses their own emotions to guide thoughts and actions
3) How one recognizes others’ emotions
4) How well they understand emotional language

Question 31

What is the relationship between intelligence and reaction time (and life-span)?

Answer 31

Increased intelligence demonstrates correlation to faster and more consistent reaction times. Plus, increased longevity.

Question 32

What are the 4 types of reaction time tests?

Answer 32

Simple reaction time (e.g. press X when you see X), choice reaction time (e.g. press X when you see X, and press A when you see A).

Inspection time tests (e.g. being shown two lines, having them removed and making judgement on which is longer).

Memory span tasks: simple word span task (e.g. list of words) and secondary processing task (e.g. a list of words whilst answering a math problem).

Question 33

Where and how is the brain associated with intelligence (which type)?

Answer 33

Neuronal cell bodies (aka gray matter) in the frontal lobe (and other areas of the brain) associates with attention control, in which attention related to fluid (g) intelligence.

Question 34

How does genetics influence intelligence? (Think heritability)

Answer 34

Genetic influences causes a 40% of variation in crystallized intelligence and 51% variation in fluid intelligence.

Question 35

How does the environment impact intelligence? (Social multiplier, epigenetics and the Flynn effect)

Answer 35

Social multiplier refers to the influence of the environment towards what once was a small genetic advantage.
Epigenetic describes when there is a change in ones gene expression and not in their DNA.
The Flynn effect outlines that increased IQ is based on environmental or epigenetic effects. (This is theorized because humans are becoming more intelligent faster than the evolutionary process)

Question 36

What are morphemes? What are phonemes?

Answer 36

Morphemes are the smallest unit of language that had meaning (e.g. de-frost-er = 3 morphemes)

Phonemes are the sounds of speech

Question 37

What body part is used in speech?

Answer 37

The vocal cords/larynx.

Question 38

What is aphasia? What are the 3 types and where is the damage for these types of aphasia to occur?

Answer 38

Aphasia is a language disorder resulting in a deficit for language production and comprehension.

Expressive aphasia, where damage is located in the frontal lobe (Broca’s area), refers to the inability to speak.

Receptive aphasia, where damage is located between the temporal and parietal lobe (Wernicke’s area), refers to the inability to comprehend speech.

Global aphasia is when there is extensive damage to the entire left brain hemisphere.

Question 39

How do the left and right brain hemispheres associate with language?

Answer 39

Language is primarily processed in the left hemisphere, however the processing of rhythm in speech and understanding metaphors occurs in the right hemisphere.

Question 40

What is the linguistic relativity theory?

Answer 40

The theory that language determines thoughts (especially because language is a form of culture).

Question 41

What is telegraphic speech?

Answer 41

Telegraphic speech describes how toddlers speak by using rudimentary sentences that miss words and grammatical markings, yet follow a logical syntax and provide meaning.

Question 42

What 2 ideas are proposed in the learning of language? (Think Skinner (1957), language acquisition device and universal grammar)

Answer 42

Skinner (1957) proposed that learning languages was determined by operant reinforcement.
Vs.
The language acquisition device which proposes that there is an innate ability for language, this includes universal grammar which describes that there are innate constraints (grammar rules) in language.
(Think spoken and sign language)

Question 43

What is surface structure? What is deep structure?

Answer 43

Surface structure describes the sound and order of words in a sentence, whilst deep structure refers to the implicit meaning of sentences.

Question 44

What is creole language?

Answer 44

A language evolving from a mix of languages.

Question 45

What is phonics? What is whole language? What are they better for in terms of learning?

Answer 45

Phonics is the method of teaching through associating letters and their phoneme. Whole language is when one learns the meaning of words and how they connect in sentences.

Phonics is better for overall reading skills, whilst whole language increases confidence and interest by developing a stronger sense of self as a reader or writer.

Question 46

What is the name of the reading disorder?

Answer 46

Dyslexia.

Question 47

What are normative decision theories? What is the expected utility theory? And what should decisions depend on?

Answer 47

Theories about how one SHOULD make decisions. The theory that decisions should be made to maximize the outcome. This should depend on the values and probabilities associated with the alternative options.

Question 48

What are descriptive decision theories?

Answer 48

Theories defining how one ACTUALLY makes a decision.

Question 49

What 3 components is general intelligence comprised of?

Answer 49

Linguistic ability, numerical ability and spatial ability.

Question 50

What is multiple intelligences and how many components are there?

Answer 50

The theory that intelligence is not one single, general ability but specifically 8 components.