Learning & Memory

Question 1

What is non-associative learning? What are the 2 types?

Answer 1

Learning about a stimulus (sight or sound) in an external world. Habituation and Sensitization.

Question 2

What is habituation? What is dis-habituation?

Answer 2

A decrease in behavioral response due to familiarity of a stimulus. Increased response due to change in the familiar stimulus.

Question 3

What is sensitization?

Answer 3

An increase in behavioral response due to exposure to a stimulus.

Question 4

What is associative learning? What are the 2 types?

Answer 4

Learning through the association/relationship of 2 pieces of information. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Question 5

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 5

A neutral stimulus that elicits a response due to its association with a stimulus that produces a response.

Question 6

What is second-order conditioning?

Answer 6

Pairing a new stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned response.

Question 7

What is extinction?

Answer 7

When a conditioned response is forgotten due to presenting the conditioned stimulus alone (w/o reward).

Question 8

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 8

A weak response to a stimulus after extinction and a resting interval.

Question 9

What is stimulus generalization?

Answer 9

When responses may be elicited by stimuli that is similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 10

What is discrimination?

Answer 10

The ability to differentiate between a conditional stimulus and other stimuli.

Question 11

What is fear conditioning?

Answer 11

When neutral stimuli becomes threatening stimuli.

Question 12

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 12

The consequence of an action (response) determines whether the action will be performed again.

Question 13

What is the Law of Effect and shaping?

Answer 13

The theory that behavior is govern by its consequence. Small rewards are used to target a bigger behavior.

Question 14

What are the 4 types of reinforcement?

Answer 14

Primary reinforcement (unconditional stimulus) and secondary reinforcement (conditioned/learned stimulus).
Positive (increases a response by adding to the stimulus) and negative (increases a response by removing).

Question 15

What are the 2 types of punishments?

Answer 15

Aversive/positive (decreasing a response by adding to the stimulus) and response cost/negative (decreasing a response by removing).

Question 16

What is equipotentiality?

Answer 16

The idea that any conditioned stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus results in learning.

Question 17

What is the partial reinforcement extinct effect? What are the 4 types of partial reinforcement? Which provide the highest response rates?

Answer 17

The idea that partial reinforcement experiences extinction less than continuous reinforcement. Fixed ratio (after a # of responses), variable ratio (after an average # of responses), fixed interval (after the 1st response and # of time), variable interval (after 1st response and average # of time). Variable ratio and variable interval.

Question 18

How do biological factors relate to classical conditioning? (Contiguity and contingency)

Answer 18

Biological constraints allow for biological preparedness. The conditioned stimulus acts a predictor and the conditioned response prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
Contiguity: learning only occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented BEFORE the unconditioned stimulus.
Contingency: the conditioned stimulus should suggest the unconditioned stimulus will be offered.

Question 19

How do biological factors relate to operant conditioning? (Contiguity and contingency)

Answer 19

Biological constraints allow for built-in predispositions. Tolman (1948): Learning involves both behavioral change and the acquisition of new knowledge (e.g. cognitive maps).

Contiguity: learning occurs when the reinforcement or punishment occurs immediately after a response.
Contingency: the reinforcement or punishment should occur more likely after the response. Otherwise, learned helplessness can occur.

Question 20

What is observational (social) learning? What are the 2 types?

Answer 20

Learning through observing others (in relation to behaviorism). Modeling and vicarious learning.

Question 21

What is modeling?

Answer 21

Learning through demonstration and then imitation. Modeling someone can be influenced by their attractiveness, status and similarity to oneself (and whether that similarity is achievable of oneself).

Question 22

What are the words for fear associations and reward associations?

Answer 22

Phobias and addiction.

Question 23

What neurotransmitter provides pleasure? Where in the brain?

Answer 23

Dopamine. In the nucleus accumbens.

Question 24

What is encoding? When does it occur in the MSM model?

Answer 24

The process of a stimulus or event transforming into memory. The transference of STM to LTM.

Question 25

What is the dual-coding hypothesis?

Answer 25

Information is better remembered when both visually and verbally memorized.

Question 26

What are the 2 types of rehearsal? What is the Levels of Processing model?

Answer 26

Maintenance and elaborating. The model/idea that elaborative rehearsal increases the ability to remember due to encoding with meaning.

Question 27

What are schemas, chunking and mnemonics?

Answer 27

Schemas are cognitive structures in semantic memory (“scripts”), chunking is breaking down information in order to remember it better, mnemonics describes learning aids/strategies to increase memory (e.g. memory palace).

Question 28

What is consolidation and re-consolidation? What are the 2 types of re-consolidation?

Answer 28

Consolidation is creating lasting connections that result in LTM and re-consolidation occurs when a memory is retrieved, re-entering an active state and being processed again, resulting in an altered memory.

The types of re-consolidation are updating (adding new information to relevant memory, where prediction errors can result) and strengthening (when a memory becomes stronger, through retrieval practice).

Question 29

What is long-term potentiation? What is an important “player” in this process?

Answer 29

LTP describes the process of strengthening synaptic connections by an increased activation of the postsynaptic neuron because of the pre synaptic neuron. (Relating to: Neural plasticity). The NMDA (glutamate) receptor is involved in this process.

Question 30

What is slow consolidation? What are flashbulb memories?

Answer 30

A type of consolidation which can occur slowly, providing reminders and emotions to occur AFTER an event - increasing more important events to be remembered. FBM are vivid episodic memories caused by a surprising and emotional arousing event.

Question 31

What is a retrieval cue?

Answer 31

Anything that helps a person recall.

Question 32

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle? What is context-dependent memory? What is state-dependent memory?

Answer 32

The idea that a stimulus encoded with an experience can trigger the memory of said experience. The ability to remember more due to the context of where the information was encoded. The ability to remember more when ones physical/mental state is the same as when information was encoded.

Question 33

What is prospective memory?

Answer 33

Remembering to do something at some future time.

Question 34

What is retrieval-induced forgetting?

Answer 34

When the retrieval of LTM impairs the recall of a related item in future.

Question 35

What is savings, blocking and absentmindedness?

Answer 35

Savings is a difference between original learning and relearning, blocking is forgetting something even though you know it (going “blank”), and absentmindedness describes not knowing something well due to shallow encoding (e.g. not paying attention).

Question 36

What is proactive and retroactive interference?

Answer 36

Proactive: when old information inhibits the ability to remember new information. Retroactive: when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information.

Question 37

What is persistence? What disorder does it relate to?

Answer 37

When unwanted memories are remembered. Relating to PTSD.

Question 38

What is memory bias?

Answer 38

When one changes memories to fit current attitudes, beliefs or knowledge.

Question 39

What is source misattribution? What are the 2 effects and 2 types of source misattribution?

Answer 39

Source misattribution describes misremembering the time, place, person or circumstance of a memory.

False frame effect and sleeper effect (which describes questioning a sources and their information but due to forgetting where the information came from, one believes the information is more credible).

Source amnesia (the inability to remember WHERE information came from) and cryptomnesia (thinking an idea is yours).

Question 40

What is suggestibility? What 2 types of memory can it create?

Answer 40

When misleading information created biased memories. Such as false memories or repressed memories.

Question 41

What is amnesia? What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

Answer 41

Amnesia is a deficit (loss) in LTM. Retrograde describes losing past memories whilst anterograde describes losing the ability to form new memories.

Question 42

What is priming?

Answer 42

When exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without intention.

Question 43

What is explicit and implicit memory? What are the types of memory in each category?

Answer 43

Explicit memory is memory consciously retrieved - including episodic (memory of events) and semantic memory (memory of facts).

Implicit memory is memory expressed through responses, actions and reactions (unconscious) - including procedural (memory of skills and habits), priming, classical conditioning and non-associative learning.