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PBS 3 > Theory of Mind > Flashcards

Theory of Mind Flashcards

1
Q

methodological criticisms ToM

A
  • lack of cross-cultural replication
  • narrow developmental focus - lack of info past early childhood
  • different methods for different ages
  • validity of FB task (has strong verbal demand)
  • evidence is correlational
  • difficult to gather reliable information about social competence
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2
Q

theoretical criticisms ToM

A
  • social effects confounded with genetic (evocative or passive)
  • mechanisms unknown
  • ability to attribute mental states is a socially neutral tool
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3
Q

Corina and Singleton

deaf children

A

deaf children with hearing parents do just as badly on ToM tests as autistic children, whereas those with deaf parents do just as well as controls - also differ in terms of the order in which they reach milestones

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4
Q

Hofmann et al 2016

training childrens theory of mind

A

• Hofmann et al (2016) – training children’s theory of mind – a meta-analysis of 45 controlled studies with 1,529 children – training was more effective than control procedures in improving children’s ToM – could be used for interventions/preventions

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5
Q

Begeer et al 2011

A

– theory of mind training in 40 children with autism aged 8-13 years – randomised controlled trial – 16-week training program – at the end of the program, compared to controls, children improved in their conceptual ToM understanding but no improvement in parent-rated social behaviour

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6
Q

Theory of Mind

A

the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others and moreover understand that there might be differences in metnal states of oneself and others

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7
Q

two distal factors of family influence on ToM

A

socio-economic family status

number of siblings

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8
Q

three proximal factors of family influence on ToM

A

communication

mental state talk

mind-mindedness

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9
Q

Theory of Mind operationalised

A

ability to perform false belief paradigm

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10
Q

false belief paradigms

A

distinguish between the knowledge they themselves and a character have

infer characters mistaken beliefs

explain characters behaviour due to their mistaken belief concerning an objects location, content or identity

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11
Q

Siblings variation between process and number

A

same number of siblings ( family structure ) variation between subjects process:

  • age differences between siblings
  • number of older vs younger siblings

The researchers thus divided the correlational measure with FBU into

  • total number of siblings ( K=22 )
  • number of older siblings ( K=12 )
  • number of child-aged siblings ( K=11 ).

siblings positive effect in child-aged siblings

with no significant effect sizes between studies of older siblings vs total number of siblings.

  • Although there was still a considerable amount of data pooled, this division into factors associated with reported effect size reduced the number of children sampled for each group, which could effect the statistical power.
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12
Q

McAlister and Peterson 2007

longitudinal ToM siblings

A

longitudinal study whereby 63 children were tested on ToM twice over 14 months – irrespective of chronological age, children with two or more child-aged siblings scored significantly higher on both the earlier and later battery of ToM tests than those with no siblings
o Age-appropriate batteries of ToM tests emphasising false belief were given at the start of the study and at the end 14 months later
o Irrespective of chronological age, children with 2 or more child siblings scored significantly higher on both the earlier and the later battery than those with no child-aged siblings
o The participant’s number of child-aged siblings continued to predict higher ToM scores even after controlling for age, verbal intelligence and time 1 ToM scores

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13
Q

Youngblade and Dunn 1995

pretend play ToM

A

observed 50 33-month-old children at home with their siblings and mothers, then assessed them on a ToM task 7 months later – the results indicated a significant, positive association between early pretend play and ToM scores, suggesting that the pretend play helped the development of understanding other’s feelings and beliefs

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14
Q

strange stories task

A

inferring a characters mental state in a short story

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15
Q

Baron-Cohen et al 1985 autism

A

Typically developing - 75% on FBU tasks at 56 months
ASD - 20% success rate at 56 months

these children may also not always depend on theory of mind to navigate social situations, instead relying on social norms and scripts

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16
Q

O’ Brien, Slaughter, & Peterson (2011)

A

Siblings interactions has a positive influence on FBU of ASD child too!

Having a younger sibling in this case is more beneficial to the ASD child, but a difference is that this sibling relationship will grow more asymmetrical over time as the sibling grows and develops past the skill level of their ASD sibling.

an older sibling actually has a negative impact of theory of mind development in ASD children, regardless of the presence of other siblings

Three pos reasons for older children

  1. Time/money constraints
  2. Overcompensation - older sibling doesn’t challenge ASD sibling enough, parents do this too
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17
Q

social competence slaughter

A
  • Theory of mind -> peer interactions -> ToM.
  • Slaughter et al. (2015): meta-analysis shows ToM correlates with popularity by .19, with a stronger effect in girls
  • Slaughter and colleagues (2016): meta-analytic review also showing r=.19 in prosocial behaviour such as sharing, helping, comforting, with similar effects in both girls and boys.
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18
Q

why modest finding in social competence

A

Why such modest findings?
• Many things involved in social interactions, not just ToM
• Difficult to measure social interactions, social behaviours are broad and encompass making friends/conflict measurement and can be done by observing/teach reports
• Depends on age, and studies tend to focus on young, preschool aged children
• Few longitudinal studies

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19
Q

Fink and Beggar 2014 - longitudinal study on social competence

A

1 year longitudinal on 106 5-6 year olds

o controlled for verbal abilities, empathy and emotional understanding
o Found ToM scores predicted peer rated social preference (popularity) concurrently at Time 1
o However, after that there is stability in social preference, so ToM cannot be said to contribute to Time 2

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20
Q

Dunn et al 2002 - social competence and friends

A

interviewed 70 children about new friendships formed in the 1st year of school

found that social insight (rated from their interview responses) was independently predicted by their preschool socio-cognitive skills (i.e., ToM and emotion understanding) and by their previous friends’ preschool socio-cognitive skills

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21
Q

Jones Gutierrez, Lublowbc

DoD DoH

A

176 deaf children between 3-11 contrasted in terms of their ability to perform ToM tasks

DoH- deaf children hearing parents
DoD- deaf children deaf parents N=46

controls

Significant delay of ToM of children with hearing parents

General language developments rather than parental influences?
However, DoD to controls

DoD and controls performed equally well

–> conversational element v important for facilitation of Theory of Mind

22
Q

billingual deaf children

A

deaf children who went to schools which use both sign language and lip-reading (i.e. identify as bilingual, which involves greater executive functioning skills) have improved theory of mind when compared to deaf children who learn just one of these languages, and even better ToM than

this mirror trend that billingual children that dont have autism also acquire ToM earlier than their autistic counterparts

23
Q

deaf children intervention

A

Intervention studies have shown that children whose theory of mind improves the most during the intervention are those with better executive functioning skills at the onset

24
Q

mothers mental state talk influence on deaf children

A

even once effects of child age and language are controlled, variation in mothers’ mental-state talk is moderately related to individual differences in DoH children’s theory-of-mind performance

25
Q

De Villiers & De Villiers, 2012

A

DoH children may be delayed on false-belief tasks but their performance on deception games is still intact compared to DoD and typical children

the extent of these differences changes with the aspect of theory of mind that is measured

deception may be less reliant on language abilities and more reliant on inhibitory control

26
Q

deaf children with cochlear implants

A

DoH children that receive cochlear implants when young are not impaired in their understanding of intention, although they are still impaired in the other aspects of theory of mind

27
Q

Meta-analysis of 104 studies on children (over 7 yrs) in English speaking countries

Milligan, Astington & Dack (2007)

A

The overall effect size for the relation between language ability and false-belief task performance when controlling for age was 0.31, which accounting for 10% of the variance.

Stronger link from early language to later theory of mind (0.56) than from early theory of mind to later language (r=0.36), implying a causal effect.

Experimental confound vs. causal role debate

Included only English-speaking countries

Also: Hughes et al (2005) found that variance for environmental influences overlap with language differences

28
Q

Training study language

guajardo watson

A

Training study: children’s false-belief task performance improves if they are engaged in conversations about characters in story books or videos

However, this study has been critiqued as it is unclear whether the training aided in mental-verb semantics, perspective-taking, or syntax.

29
Q

language study germany

A

Study carried out in German with three training conditions: (1)
using no sentential complements (2) syntax of complementation without the deceptive (3) using sentential complements with think and say in conversation about the deceptive objects.

These findings suggest that dyadic conversation and individual mastery of complementation syntax make independent contributions to the development of false-belief understanding, and furthermore, they show that language is needed because the perceptual evidence that appearances can be deceiving was not sufficient.

30
Q

Hughes et al. (2005)

twins and environment

A

1,116 pairs of 5-year-old twins

found that nongenetic factors accounted for 93% of the variance in total scores

This overlaps with environmental ability on language ability

31
Q

Hughes et al. (2005)

twins longitudinal how ToM is accounted for

A

Longitudinal of 1,116 twins

  • 44% of the variation in ToM scores was accounted for by ToM-specific nonshared environmental influences (e.g. child-specific life events (e.g., accidents and illnesses) and, more im- portant, siblings’ contrasting relationships with parents, with each other, and with peers)
  • 20% by ToM-specific shared environmental influences (e.g. attachment/ maternal mind mindedness)
  • 21% by common shared environmental influences on ToM and verbal ability
  • 15% by common genetic influences.
32
Q

Meta-analysis exploring relation between executive function and ToM

A

Meta-analysis exploring relation between executive function and ToM

100 separate effect sizes (studies) analyzed

The weighted mean effect size (r) was .38, representing a medium to large effect size

(a) similar for children from different cultures
(b) largely consistent across distinct EF tasks, but varies across different types of false belief task
(c) early individual differences in EF predict later variation in FBU but not vice versa.

research found that the relationship between the social environment (specifically the family environment) is strongest when children have well developed executive function

This suggests that executive function provides some sort of ‘susceptibility’ to the environment -> once a child’s executive functioning skills are sufficiently developed, then further environmental factors become more salient

33
Q

Fonagy, Redfern and Charman ( 1997 )

attachment

A

securely attached infants outperform other children as preschoolers on tests of ToM, even when effects of verbal ability are controlled, suggesting a specific relation between attachment and ToM

34
Q

Ebert et al 2017

longitudinal study SES

A

Longitudinal study of 121 German families low-SES children lagged behind their high-SES counterparts at 3.5 years-old, 4.5 years-old, and 5 years-old Link: language ability and executive function, both which have been linked to ToM (Devine and Hughes meta-analysis only controlled for language)

35
Q

SES study criticism

A

ToM link with father’s economic status and mothers education, found it was more significant than income Shows that the association is not always so well demonstrated in studies, depends on how socioeconomic status is measured.

Shows that the association is not always so well demonstrated in studies, depends on how socioeconomic status is measured.

36
Q

Devine and Hughes ( 2017 )

A

Tracked 117 children over a 13 month period

Both MM and MST were weakly associated with children’s ToM at the start of the study, but only MST predicted later FBU

indicates that they are independent and MST more sign!

+ only study that measures and contrasts both mental state talk and mind mindedness

37
Q

Devine, Hughes, Wang 2017

  • cross cultural set up
A

o 241 parent-child dyads from UK and Hong Kong
o two samples matched in gender composition, no significant difference in number of siblings or expressive language ability
o Children completed a battery of tasks designed to measure false belief understanding, verbal ability and non-verbal ability – fixed counterbalanced format – brief interview to obtain a representational measure of parental mind-mindedness (equivalent settings across sites using precisely the same instructions and protocol)

(“false belief latent factor” - combined 4 measures of FBU, regression model controlled for differences in age, language ability, number of hours per week at nursey, number of siblings, SES)

38
Q

Devine Hughes and Wang 2017

cross cultural
results

A

o UK children showed superior theory of mind performance and UK parents showed greater levels of mind-mindedness – unlikely to be due solely to methodological factors
These researchers found that U.K. children showed scored higher in FBU tasks (d = 0.47)

Overall, country predicted parents’ overall use of non-mental attributes, which in turn predicted parental mind‐mindedness and children’s false belief understanding

o Children’s family environments might shed light on how culture shapes children’s theory of mind
o When group differences in parental mind-mindedness were taken into account, the cross-cultural contrast in children’s theory of mind task performance attenuated –> thus mindmindeedness important not culture?

39
Q

critiques Devine Hughes Wang 2017

A

Findings show some inconsistencies when looking at individual battery tasks even though overall are consistent when conducting a statistical analyses to derive the overall score

False belief latent factor and parental mind-mindedness is only marginally significant for the UK ( .19 )

Future studies should examine potential contrasts in the nature and relative salience of predictors of individual differences in theory of mind for children from different cultures

40
Q

Fujita

A

conducted a comparison of British and Japanese mothers’ speech samples (n=226) coded for mind-mindedness

Mind mindedness may be culturally specific

41
Q

Schacht 2013

A

reported that mothers with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), characterised by a long-term pattern of emotional instability, not only had lower mind-mindedness scores than mothers without BPD, but their children performed worse on ToM tasks too – possibility of interventions designed to help children whose mothers have mental health disorders to develop ToM skills

42
Q

Lundy

mindmindedness and fathers

A

has shown that preschoolers’ success on theory-of-mind tasks shows equally strong associations with fathers’ mind-mindedness.

Quality of interaction is more important than quantity

43
Q

perspectives on Mindmindedness

insights from literatire review

A

The available evidence (less than 30% of studies to date have reported on fathers) suggests similar associations between mind-mindedness and child ToM for mothers and fathers

(Also we need to examine mind-mindedness in different cultures, in fathers and childcare workers, as well as in atypical parenting contexts (adoption/fostering) and in children with developmental disabilities (e.g., deaf children)

44
Q

Meta analysis Devine and Hughes - MST

A

MST 28 studies (record conversation: unstructured talk, talk in a picture task )

MST and children’s FBU modest but statistically significant
( r=.21 )

6 longitudinal studies for moderate and significant developmental association between MST and later FBU ( r=.29 )

for MST: only 12 recorded overall frequency of parental talk ( parental verbosity ) –> those report lower effect sizes –> would have still been significant if overall better quality study?

45
Q

Meta analysis Devine and Hughes - MM

A

MM: 13 studies ( parents describe interview and observation to show how often do they think of the child as thinking and feeling )

MM: modest but statistical significant association , r=.16, data homogenic, measuremtn methodology not influencing effect size
Longitudinal research: controlling for earlier false belief task performance - association modest and marginally significant r=.12

MM: p-curve analysis , relationship MM and FBU inconclusive

46
Q

siblings meta analysis

A

Siblings: 45 studies , median N=90

Family size operationalised as number of siblings: modest but significant r ( =.14 ) between family size and FBU –> more siblings a child has , the faster their development of ToM would be

–> family process though

good data

+
Siblings:
- still showed statistically significant results when controlling for individual differences in verbal ability of children ( r=.12 ) data from 22 studies
5 longitudinal that were still modestly significant when accounting for individual differences in early FBU

47
Q

socio-economic status meta analysis

A

N= 7,320
3-6 years old
Five meta-analyses

Lower SES , longer for ToM acquisition
R=.18
Meta-analyses r=.12
When controlled for language still r=.11 –> data coming from 30 studies

- SES significant regardless of language important as retardation in language development had been previously offered as an explanation for SES and FBU correlation 
- Negative: SES and FBU stronger in earlier publications  ( with less rigorous methodologies ) --> decline effect --> meta-analysis exaggerated correlation ?

Did not account for executive function just language

48
Q

training ToM meta-analysis

Hofman et al 2016

A

training children’s theory of mind – a meta-analysis of 45 controlled studies with 1,529 children – training was more effective than control procedures in improving children’s ToM – could be used for interventions/preventions

49
Q

Cognitive vs connected talk

A

Both cognitive and connected talk predicted improvement in ToM over time, benefits of mental state talk might be maximised if child’s inner experienced is matched

50
Q

benefit sibling intro sentence

A

Children with one or more siblings pass false-belief tasks at least 6 months earlier than children without siblings

51
Q

pretend play siblings

A

observed 50 33-month-old children at home with their siblings and mothers, then assessed them on a ToM task 7 months later – the results indicated a significant, positive association between early pretend play and ToM scores, suggesting that the pretend play helped the development of understanding other’s feelings and beliefs

52
Q

Dunn, Brown & Beardsall (1991)

A

• – conducted a longitudinal study to examine the relationship between individual differences in 3-year-old children’s conversations about feeling states with their mothers and their ability to recognise emotions at the age of 6. Controlling for children’s verbal ability and the frequency of talk in the family, the researchers found that certain factors of discourse about feelings (such as frequency and diversity) were positively correlated with an increased ability to recognise emotions three years later

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