Theory and methods - Definitions

Question 1

Modernity

Answer 1

Modernity refers to the period of the application of rational principles and logic to the understanding, development and organisation of human societies

Question 2

Social order

Answer 2

Social order refers to a relatively stable state of society, with some shared norms and values which establish orderly patterns that enable people to live together and relate to one another in everyday life

Question 3

Determinism

Answer 3

Determinism is the idea that people’s behaviour is moulded by their social surroundings, and that they have little free will, control or choice over how they behave

Question 4

Dominant ideology

Answer 4

The dominant ideology refers to a set of ideas which justifies the social advantages of wealthy, powerful and influential groups in society, and justifies the disadvantages of those who lack wealth, power and influence

Question 5

Structuralism

Answer 5

Structuralism is a perspective which is concerned with the overall structure of society, and sees individual behaviour moulded by social institutions like the family, the education system, the media and work

Question 6

Macro approach

Answer 6

A macro approach is one that focuses on the large-scale structure of society as a whole, rather than on individuals

Question 7

Positivism

Answer 7

Positivism is the view that the logic, methods and procedures of the natural sciences, as used in subjects like physics, chemistry and biology, can be applied to the study of society with little modification

Question 8

Functional prerequisites

Answer 8

Functional prerequisites are the basic needs that must be met if society is to survive

Question 9

Collective conscience

Answer 9

A collective conscience means shared beliefs and values, which form moral ties binding communities together and which regulate individual behaviour

Question 10

Structural differentiation

Answer 10

Structural differentiation refers to the way new, more specialised institutions emerge to take over functions that were once performed by a single institution

Question 11

Dysfunction

Answer 11

Dysfunction refers to a part of the social structure which does not contribute to the maintenance and well-being of society, but creates tensions and other problems

Question 12

Manifest function

Answer 12

A manifest function is the recognised and intended outcome of the action of an individual or institution

Question 13

Latent function

Answer 13

A latent function is the unrecognised or unintended outcome of the action of an individual or institution

Question 14

New Right

Answer 14

The New Right is a political ideology and an approach to social and political policies that stresses individual freedom, self-help and self-reliance, reduction of the power and spending of the state, the free market and free competition between private companies, schools and other institutions, and the importance of traditional institutions and values

Question 15

Dependency culture

Answer 15

A dependency culture is a set of values and beliefs, and a way of life, centred on dependence on others

It is normally used by New Right writers in the context of those who depend on welfare state benefits

Question 16

Means of production

Answer 16

The means of production are the key resources necessary for producing society’s goods, such as land, factories and machinery

Question 17

Relations of production

Answer 17

The relations of production are the forms of relationship between those people involved in production, such as cooperation or private ownership and control

Question 18

Communism

Answer 18

Communism is an equal society, without social classes or class conflict, in which the means of production are the common property of all

Question 19

Surplus value

Answer 19

Surplus value is the extra value added by workers to the products they produce, after allowing for production costs and the payment of their wages, and which goes to the employer in the form of profit

Question 20

Bourgeoisie

Answer 20

The bourgeoisie or capitalists is the class of owners of the means of production in industrial societies, whose primary purpose is to make profits

Question 21

Proletariat

Answer 21

The proletariat is the social class of workers who have to work for wages as they do not own the means of production

Question 22

Labour power

Answer 22

Labour power refers to people’s capacity to work

In capitalist societies, people sell their labour power to employers in return for a wage, and employers buy only their labour power, but not the whole person as they did under slavery

Question 23

False consciousness

Answer 23

False consciousness is a lack of awareness among people about what their real interests are, and the false belief that everyone benefits form the present organisation of society which is presented as fair and just

Question 24

Class consciousness

Answer 24

Class consciousness is an awareness among members of a social class of their real interests

Question 25

Relative autonomy

Answer 25

Relative autonomy is the idea in neo-Marxist theory that the superstructure of society has some independence from the economy, rather than being directly determined by it

Question 26

Hegemony

Answer 26

Hegemony refers to the dominance in society of the ruling class’s set of ideas over others, and accepted of and consent to them by the rest of society

Question 27

Repressive state apparatus

Answer 27

The repressive state apparatus refers to those parts of the state which are concerned with mainly repressive, physical means of keeping a population in line, such as the army, police, courts and prisons

Question 28

Ideological state apparatus

Answer 28

Ideological state apparatuses are agencies that spread the dominant ideology and justify the power of the dominant social class

Question 29

Interpretivism

Answer 29

Interpretivism is an approach emphasising that people have consciousness involving personal beliefs, values and interpretations, and these influence the way they act

People have choices and do not simply respond to forces outside themselves

To understand society it is therefore necessary to understand the meanings people give to their behaviour, and how these are influenced by the behaviour and interpretations of others

Question 30

Micro approach

Answer 30

A micro approach is one that focuses on small groups or individuals, rather than on the structure of society as a whole

Question 31

Symbol

Answer 31

A symbol is something, like an object, word, expression or gesture, that stands for something else and to which individuals have attached some meaning

Question 32

Impression management

Answer 32

Impression management is the way individuals try to convince others of the identity they wish to assert by giving particular impressions of themselves to other people

Question 33

Verstehen

Answer 33

Verstehen is the idea of understanding human behaviour by putting yourself in the position of those being studied, and trying to see things from their point of view

Question 34

Structuration

Answer 34

Structuration refers to the two-way process by which people are constrained or shaped by society and social institutions, but they can at the same time take action to support, shape and change them

Question 35

Reflexivity

Answer 35

Reflexivity refers to the way the knowledge people gain about society can affect the way they behave in it, as people (and institutions) reflect on what they do and how they do it

Question 36

Malestream

Answer 36

Malestream is a word coined by feminists to describe the type of sociology that concentrates on men, is mostly carried out by men and then assumes that the findings can be applied to women as well

Question 37

Disembedding

Answer 37

Disembedding refers to the way social relations are lifted out of local contexts, and they are no longer confined by time and space

Question 38

Simulacra

Answer 38

Simulacra are images or reproductions and copies which appear to reflect things in the real world but have no basis in reality

Question 39

Hyperreality

Answer 39

Hyperreality is a view of the world which is created and defined by the media, with the image of an event more real than the event it is meant to be depicting

Question 40

Empirical evidence

Answer 40

Empirical evidence is observable evidence collected in the physical or social world

Question 41

Objectivity

Answer 41

Objectivity means approaching topics with an open mind, avoiding bias and being prepared to submit research evidence to scrutiny by other researchers

Question 42

Value freedom

Answer 42

Value freedom is the idea that the beliefs and prejudices of a researcher should not influence the way research is carried out and evidence interpreted

Question 43

Social facts

Answer 43

Social facts are phenomena that exist outside individuals and independently of their minds, but which act upon them in ways which constrain or mould their behaviour

Question 44

Social integration

Answer 44

Social integration refers to the integration of individuals into social groups, binding them into society and building social cohesion

Question 45

Moral regulation

Answer 45

Moral regulation refers to the regulation or control by social values of the actions and desires of individuals

Question 46

Realism

Answer 46

Realism is the view that events in both the social and natural worlds are produced (caused) by underlying structures and processes, which may be unobservable

Question 47

Paradigm

Answer 47

A paradigm is a framework of scientific laws, concepts, theories, methods and assumptions within which scientists operate, and which provides guidelines for the conduct of research and what counts as proper evidence

Question 48

Inductive approach

Answer 48

An inductive approach is one which develops theories on the basis of evidence that has been collected

Question 49

Grounded theory

Answer 49

Grounded theory is theory that arises from (is grounded in) analysis of data that have been collected

Question 50

Social policy

Answer 50

Social policy refers to the packages of plans and actions adopted by national and local government or various voluntary agencies to solve social problems or achieve other goals that are seen as important

Question 51

Social problem

Answer 51

A social problem is something that is seen as being harmful to society in some way, and needs something doing to sort it out

Question 52

Sociological problem

Answer 52

A sociological problem is any social or theoretical issue that needs explaining