theories of the family and social policy Flashcards

Question

What do functionalists such as Parson believe is the best family?

Answer 1

For parsons, the nuclear family is the ideal institution to perform these essential functions in modern industrial society

Answer 2

- sees the family too optimistically, paints a too rosy or idealistic picture of family life - when family life is not like this for everyone - holds an outdated, patriarchal and sexist assumptions about the family

Answer 3

education - socialisation | NHS - therapy - emotional

Answer 4

Karl Marx is considered to be one of the world's greatest intellectuals; he was a brilliant and influential sociologist, philosopher, economist, historian and political scientist

Answer 5

Karl Marx's works represents a critique of an industrial capitalism. Before the industrial revolution, inequalities existed within society however the process of industrialisation led to the development of a capitalist society where inequalities became far more pronounced and extreme

Answer 6

Capitalism is a society which is based on individual and private ownership of wealth. It is an economic system where trade and industry are privately owned rather than owned by the state and the accumulation of wealth is encouraged. Capitalism is an extremely hierarchical and in-egalitarian society based on a class of owners and non-owners

Answer 7

Within a capitalist society it is inevitable that there will be huge inequalities in income and wealth ; the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer

Answer 8

Capitalism led to the emergence of an extreme two class systems: A class of owners & A class of Non-owners

Answer 9

``` A class of owners refers to the capitalists. The capitalists own industry, are wealthy and powerful. Therefore they are the dominant class and because of their dominance, they are the ruling class aka. bourgeoisie. They are also referred as the elite which are a very small minority within society ```

Answer 10

``` A class of non-owners refers to a class of workers. They own their labour and skill. They also lack wealth and power. They are referred as the subordinate class as they are inferior to the ruling class. They are also the subject class, as they are subject to the ruling class and their wants. They are also referred as the proletariat or the masses and are a majority within society. ```

Answer 11

False class consciousness is where the true nature of their exploitative situation is distorted - they are deluded and blinded to the real nature of their problems ('the wool has been pulled over their eyes')

Answer 12

Marx argued that although the proletariat suffer great inequalities they endure them as they suffer from false class consciousness which is a result of ruling class ideology (where RC ideas become dominate and influence how people see things)

Answer 13

Marx predicted that over time the proletariat would gain full class consciousness and they would unite and engage in proletarian revolution. This would lead to the downfall of capitalism and the creation of Marx's utopian society - communism

Answer 14

Marxists critique the family because they believe that the way the family functions, serves to preserve and perpetuate the fundamentally unsatisfying and un-liberating patterns of capitalism. They claim it forestalls the emergence of a more enriching society because it operates in such a way that it protects and props up capitalism.

Answer 15

- Families encourage and reproduce hierarchical in-egalitarian relationships - Families act as a safety valve dampening down discontentment - Reproduction of labour power - Unit of consumption

Answer 16

Marxists argue that there two main ways that families encourage and reproduce hierarchical in-egalitarian relationships: - Children are socialised to accept patterns of authority, obedience and power. In this way, they become well practised in subordination and become subservient. - Children observe and accept hierarchy. The family is based on in-egalitarian relationships between adults and children and between males and females and sometimes between older and younger siblings. Therefore, Marxists argue the habit we have of deferring to authority and accepting the unequal relationships that exist in society as a whole, has its source within the family. It acts as a barrier to the development strong, organised and collective opposition to the status quo and therefore operates in an ideological way to support capitalism

Answer 17

Sociologist Zaretsky (1976) states that capitalist societies work in alienating and exploiting the proletariat and this leads to feelings of discontentment. As a result of this, family becomes even more important and is placed on a pedestal. It is seen as the source of satisfaction, achievement and fulfilment that cannot be gained elsewhere. In this way, he argues that the family ideologically functions to cushion to effects of capitalism even though it cannot compensate for the real alienation caused by it. Zaretsky observes that the fundamental irony of this is that the less fulfilling work is, the more people cling on to the family as their only hope and source of being valued and satisfied. However, in doing so, they allow the structures of inequality which made them seek refuge in the first place continue. Therefore, the family, in dampening down discontentment while still perpetuating the very system which produces it.

Answer 18

Marxists believe the family reproduces the labour power by providing a place where children can be borne and reared in relative safety, the family reproduces tomorrow's labour force with the attitudes required. At the same time, by offering a centre for relaxation, refreshment, rest and recreation as the family ensures that members of the labour force return to work each day fit and healthy so that they can be once more, productive

Answer 19

Marxists believe that the family acts as a unit of consumption, however with capitalism, the family has become the major unit of consumption: Advertisers urge families to 'keep up with the Joneses' by consuming all the latest products and creating false needs. The media target children, who use 'pester power' to persuade parents to spend more and children who lack the latest clothes or 'must have' have gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peers. In this way, through its purchasing, the family keeps the capitalist economy from ticking over.

Answer 20

Engels linked economic changes to changes in the family and sexual relationships arguing that the monogamous nuclear family developed with the emergence of the private property

Answer 21

Due to industrialisation and capitalism, family structures changed to reflect the needs of a patrilineal and capitalistic society, where males dominated and wealth and property held more importance. This meant that rich males had to ensure the paternity of their children in order to pass down property to legitimate heirs which lead to the monogamous nuclear family as men needed more control over women

Answer 22

The development of property ownership primarily through industrialisation and the development of capitalism shifted the balance of power from women to men and led to the creation of a patriarchal system as men were now tied to the workforce. At this time women retreated to the home to look after children for longer periods of time. It is in this context that women become homemakers and carers rather than workers alongside men. In this sense, capitalism led to the exploitation and oppression of not just men as wage slaves but also of women. Furthermore, at this society became patrilineal. Property became the right of males and in order for them to pass it on they had to be certain of the legitimacy of their heirs. They therefore needed greater control over women so that they would be in no doubt about the paternity of their children

Answer 23

The bourgeoisie is the ruling class in Marx's theory of class struggle under capitalism. The bourgeoisie is the property-owning class who own the means of production (e.g. factories) and employ and exploit the proletariat.

Answer 24

A monogamous relationship is when two individuals are in a partnership (relationship) and there are no more than two people in the relationship.

Answer 25

Matriarchal refers to a society where women dominate and females holding the most power and influence

Answer 26

Patrilineal refers to property and wealth being only passed on to legitimate heirs from father to son

Answer 27

The new right is a conservative approach, which have a preference for the traditional nuclear family believing this is the ideal family structures. They are also strong, supporters of the institution of marriage and are critical of many contemporary trends which they believe have undermined these structures.

Answer 28

- growth in single parent families - cohabitation - lone person households - same-sex families - increase in divorce - reconstituted families - changes in childbearing - people not having children etc

Answer 29

``` three main reasons: They believe single parent families are - dependent on the state (expensive) - lack moral responsibility - Dysfunctional as SPFs deprive boys of their male role model. ```

Answer 30

The new right are mainly critical of lone parent families and claim that the collapse of relationships between cohabiting couples is the main cause of an increase in lone families

Answer 31

Expensive - There's either one or no income therefore this type of family is disproportionally more likely to be dependent on benefits. This would be undesirable for the conservatives who do not support things such as welfare and the dependency on the state Lacking Moral Responsibility - A- Content to live off the state rather than being self sufficient and independent B- They represent the breakdown of the traditional nuclear family / many children are born outside of marriage or it reflects a marital breakdown Dysfunctional - - They are critical of single parent families as many children are brought up and are denied two parental role models - They are particularly concerned about the number of young boys who lack a father figure and believe this will lead to behaviour problems.

Answer 32

- They value and celebrate diversity, as it reflects individualism and people being able to choose their own family structures that reflect their own needs and wants in relationships and family units - Do-it-yourself biography - individualisation thesis - They don't view the patriarchal conventional nuclear family as superior, they see all family structures as reflecting individual needs - Risk society - negotiated family

Answer 33

They believe that postmodern society is a bit like a 'cultural supermarket' and individuals have much greater freedom to choose and negotiate their own lifestyle. They have the ability to 'pick and mix' their own life and life course reflecting their own individual needs and preferences. In relation to the family, they celebrate greater individualism and believe it is reflected in greater family plurality and diversity.

Answer 34

- increase in remarriages and divorce - same-sex marriages - increase in cohabitation - increase in SPFS and lone parents etc (any trend linking to family diversity)

Answer 35

Feminists take a critical view of the family as they believe it oppresses women. However, feminism is a broad term encompassing different theories and each offering different solutions to the problem of gender inequality.

Answer 36

Liberal feminists focus on campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities for women and argue that men would also benefit from full gender equality. They argue that there are two most effective ways to promote gender equality: - changing peoples attitudes and behaviours through socialisation - passing legislation to outlaw discrimination e.g. sex discrimination act (1975). Although they believe that full gender equality has yet to be achieved they do acknowledge that progress has been made.

Answer 37

They argue that there are two most effective ways to promote gender equality: - changing peoples attitudes and behaviours through socialisation - passing legislation to outlaw discrimination e.g. sex discrimination act (1975).

Answer 38

They have been criticised for being too optimistic on believing that changing peoples attitudes and behaviours through socialisation and passing legislation will promote gender equality. As in reality it has not promoted gender equality as they had hoped or envisaged.

Answer 39

Marxist feminists argue that the main cause of women's oppression is capitalism. They believe the family serves key functions for capitalism as: - women reproduce the labour force through their unpaid domestic labour, by socialising the next generation of workers with the values required by capitalists and maintaining the current one - women act as a safety valve and absorb anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism.

Answer 40

Ansley (1972) argues that wives are 'takers of shit' who soak up the legitimate frustration and anger that their husbands feel because of the exploitation they suffer at work. This explains male domestic violence against women.

Answer 41

Benston argues that the nuclear family acts as a valuable stabilising force within capitalist society because the male wage is a family wage and the husband cannot withdraw his labour. As well as this, he argues that women are a 'reserve army' of cheap labour that can be exploited depending on the needs of the economy.

Answer 42

Mitchell argues that full gender equality in the labour market can only be achieved if women are freed from their domestic responsibilities. Marxist feminists see the oppression of women in the family as linked to the exploitation of the working class and argue that a socialist revolution would lead to the abolition of the family as we know it.

Answer 43

Radical feminists argue that the patriarchy causes women's oppression. They claim that the key division in society is between men and women arguing that: - Men are the enemy and the source of women's oppression - The family and marriage are key patriarchal institutions in society. They argue that men benefit from women's unpaid domestic labour and sexual services and they dominate women through domestic violence or the threat of it.

Answer 44

Many including Dobash and Dobash (1970) see widespread domestic violence as inevitable feature of a patriarchal society arguing that it serves to preserve the power that men have over women. They see it as an extension of male domination and control over women and offer a sociological explanation by linking patterns of domestic violence to dominant patriarchal social norms about gender and marriage that they believe contribute to this pattern of behaviour. They point out that contrary to popular belief the family is not always a secure, happy and functional unit. For many, particularly women and children the family is the most violent group to which they likely belong.

Answer 45

Pahl (1985) argues that the legitimisation of domestic violence by wider society is clear in the denial that its incidence is rare, or that it is confined to certain groups etc. She claims that the dichotomy between the public and private sphere is central to an understanding of domestic violence. This and the male domination of state institutions helps according to Dobash and Dobash to explain the reluctance of the police and courts to deal effectively with cases of domestic violence and their justifications of non-intervention.

Answer 46

For radical feminists, the patriarchal system has to be overturned and the family which is at the root of their oppression, abolished. They encourage separatism, where women organise themselves and live independently of men; many support the creation of matrifocal households and some advocate for political lesbianism to avoid sleeping with the 'enemy'

Answer 47

Difference feminists critique the other three feminist approaches as they tend to assume that most women live in conventional nuclear families and that they share a similar experience of family life. Difference feminists believe it is wrong to generalise in this way arguing that middle class and working class, black and white, heterosexual and lesbian, old and young women etc all have different experiences. Therefore, they claim that different theories are needed to account for these differences. They embrace the theory of intersectionality which recognises the overlapping nature of much oppression.

Answer 48

Difference feminists critique the other three feminist approaches as they tend to assume that most women live in conventional nuclear families and that they share a similar experience of family life.

Answer 49

A reserve army of labour describes the ranks of the unemployed who are prepared to work for low wages in temporary jobs e.g women during the world war

Answer 50

Oppression is a form of injustice where one group are subordinate while the other is privileged and they exercise their power and influence in a unjust manner to those below them e.g. structural factors.

Answer 51

A society based on male domination. A system of social structures and practices where men govern, oppress and exploit women

Answer 52

Matrifocal refers to when women / the mother are the head of the household and family

Answer 53

'top down' structural approaches are deterministic points of view, they believe that society controls and determines our life, culture and societal norms. Types of 'top down' structural approaches: - Functionalist - Marxist - Feminist

Answer 54

'bottom down' structural approaches believe that through free will, we create out own society through our actions. Types of 'bottom down' structural approaches: - Post modernist - interactionist

Answer 55

The sociology of personal life is a new perspective on families and is strongly influenced by interactionist ideas. It emphasises that to understand families, we must start from the point of view of the individuals concerned and the meanings they give to their relationships.

Answer 56

Functionalism, Marxist and Feminism all take a 'top down', structural approach. However, in contrast the personal life perspective shares the 'bottom down' approach of interactionism. It emphasises the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships.

Answer 57

The personal life perspective takes a 'bottom down' approach to relationships, the personal life perspective takes a wider view of relationships than just the traditional 'family' relationships which are based on blood or marriage ties. By focusing on the meaning each relationship has for people, the personal life perspective draws our attention to a range of other personal or intimate relationships that are important to people, even though they may not conventionally be defined as 'family'. These include, all kinds of relationships that individuals see as significant and that gives them a sense of identity, belonging or relatedness.

Answer 58

- Relationships with friends - who may be 'like a sister or brother' to you - Fictive kin - close friends who are treated as relatives, for example your mum's best friend who you call auntie - Gay and Lesbian 'chosen families' - made up of a supportive network of close friends, ex-partners and others, who are not related by blood or marriage. - Relationships with dead relatives - who live on in people's memories and continue to shape their identities and affect their actions - Relationships with pets: For example, Tipper (2011) found in her study of children's views of family relationships, that children frequently saw their pets as 'part of the family'

Answer 59

NORDQVIST and SMART (2014) conducted research on donor-conceived children explore 'what counts as family when your child shares a genetic link with a 'relative stranger' but not with your partner? They found that the issue of blood and genes raised a range of feelings. Some parents emphasised the importance of social relationships over genetic ones in forming family bonds. For example, Erin, the mother of an egg-donor conceived child, defined being a mum in terms of the time and effort she put into raising her daughter: 'that's what makes a mother and not the cell that starts it off' Parents wondered whether possible 'donor siblings' and other 'donor extended family' counted as family for their child. Where couples knew their donor, they had to resolve other questions about who counted as family, e.g. do the donor's parents count as grandparents etc.

Answer 60

- The personal life perspective rejects the 'top down' view taken by other theories, nevertheless it does see intimate relationships as performing the important function of providing us with a sense of belonging and relatedness. However, unlike functionalism the personal life perspective recognises that relatedness is not always positive. - The value of the personal life perspective as compared with 'top down', structural approaches is that provides an understanding of how people construct and define their relationships as 'family; rather than imposing traditional sociological definitions of the family from the outside.

Answer 61

The personal life perspective can be criticised for taking too broad a view. Critics argue that, by including a wide range of different kinds of personal relationships, we ignore what is special about relationships that are based on blood or marriage

Answer 62

Russia - Russian revolution of 1917, led to the government to try and destroy the old pre-revolutionary patriarchal family structure which they regarded as an obstacle to the creation of a socialist society based on equality. The government changed the laws in 1912 to make divorce and abortion easy to obtain and the constitution guaranteed equality between the sexes, women entered paid employment on a larger scale and the state began to provide workplace and other communal nurseries. However, this changed when the soviet state experienced many problems including civil war, famine and the threat of war etc which meant the change of policy. Divorce laws were tightened, abortion made illegal and parents were encouraged to have more children and rewarded with bigger family allowances. The state and media have glorified parenthood and highly fertile woman were given the title of 'Hero mother of the soviet union'

Answer 63

The government introduced the 'one child policy' in attempt to discourage population growth through its family policies. The policy was supervised by workplace family planning committees; women had to seek permission to try to become pregnant and there was often a waiting list and quota for each factory. Couples who complied with the policy got extra benefits, such as free child healthcare and higher tax allowances and only children gained priority in education and housing later in life. Couples who broke their agreement to have only one child had to repay their allowances and pay a fine. Women faces pressure to undergo sterilisation after their first child. However, from 2016, couples could request a permits for two children

Answer 64

the former communist government of Romania in the 1980s introduced a series of policies to try to drive up the birth rate, which had been failing as living standards decline. It restricted contraception and abortion, set up infertility treatment centres, made divorce more difficult, lowered the legal age of marriage to 15 and made unmarried adults and childless couples pay an extra 5% income tax

Answer 65

In nazi germany in the 1930s, the state pursued a twofold policy. On the one hand, it encouraged the healthy and supposedly 'racially pure' to breed to a 'master race' by restricting abortion and contraception. official policy sought to keep women out of the workforce and confine them to 'children, kitchen and church' - the better to perform their biological role. On the other hand, the state compulsorily sterilised 375,000 disabled people that it deemed unfit to breed on the grounds of 'physical malformation, mental retardation, epilepsy, imbecility, deafness or blindness'. Many of these people were later murdered in nazi concentration camps

Answer 66

Some people argue that in democratic societies such as Britain, the family is a private sphere of life in which the government does not intervene, except perhaps when things 'go wrong', for example in cases of child abuse. However, sociologists argue that the state's social policies in democratic countries, play a very important role in shaping and moulding family life to suit their ideological and political preferences. Although, more subtle, the government still uses social policies in an attempt to control aspects of family life

Answer 67

Conservative policies developed in 1979-1997 reflected the general desire of right-wing politicians (known as the new right and influenced by Thatcher's ideology) to reinforce the importance of the nuclear family and conservative attitudes towards family life, which they believe were (and are) under threat,

Answer 68

- It is the building block of society (family is foundation) - Based on a heterosexual marriage - Two parents are essential to create social order and discipline - Roles and functions should be clearly defined (gender roles and parent roles)

Answer 69

According to new right thinking, the family works effectively when it remains stable - they believe that the conventional nuclear family is best placed to achieve this stability. Therefore, they have been extremely critical of some of the changes that have taken place both in society and in the family over recent years claiming that the general trend towards a more liberal shown in the following patterns and trends have undermined the nuclear family

Answer 70

They have been extremely critical of some of the changes that have taken place both in society and in the family over recent years claiming that the general trend towards a more liberal shown in the following patterns and trends have undermined the nuclear family. They are critical trends such as: - single parent families - reconstituted families - increase in divorce - increase in cohabitation - decline in marriage - decline in childbearing - secularisation - same-sex families

Answer 71

The new right, particularly the American theorist Murray (1984) were very critical of past government policies pre 1979 as he believed them to have contributed to the disintegration of the nuclear family. They attacked the welfare state for what they saw as encouraging 'deviant lifestyles and family forms'. For example, they argued that an over generous welfare state encouraged single parent families as they believed welfare benefits acted as an incentive for: - young women to become pregnant knowing that the state would look after them and their child e.g. child benefits, provide council housing and housing benefits - Fathers to abandon their responsibilities, believing that the state would maintain their children rather they themselves having to show financial responsibility Murray also argued that this would lead to children, particularly young boys growing up without a male role model or authority figure leading to discipline problems.

Answer 72

New right believed welfare benefits acted as an incentive for: - young women to become pregnant knowing that the state would look after them and their child e.g. child benefits, provide council housing and housing benefits - Fathers to abandon their responsibilities, believing that the state would maintain their children rather they themselves having to show financial responsibility

Answer 73

The new right were also critical of divorce laws as they believed they made divorce too easy, taxation policies which they believed discriminated against married couples and the relaxation of laws on homosexuality. They campaigned to reassert traditional morality and family relationships by implementing new policies which supported a return to the traditional nuclear family.

Answer 74

- 1986 Married couples tax alliance - This was a tax incentive to encourage marriage and discourage cohabitation (and divorce). Married couples would be given a tax allowance providing a small amount of tax relief, rewarding married couples for getting married and not undermining the nuclear family - 1988 benefits cuts - benefits were withdrawn from 16-18 year olds who did not take a place on training schemes, forcing families to take responsibility for maintaining unemployed teenagers. Furthermore, single-parent benefits were cut in an attempt to discourage alternative family structures - 1993 child support agency - The intention of the CSA was to force absent parent (fathers) to take financial responsibility for their children - they would be enforced to pay maintenance for their children. It was designed to discourage people from having children outside of marriage or fathers from leaving the family household and forgetting about their financial responsibility to their children. The CSA would transfer financial responsibility from state to parents . - Privatising care for the elderly - This made social care more expensive and resulted in poorer families having to take responsibility for elderly relatives (in reality, this burden of care resulted in women often becoming main carers and thus restricting their employment opportunities and by implication, reinforcing traditional gender roles. - Refusal to introduce free/ reduced cost childcare - this reinforced the idea that they favoured traditional gender roles with men going to work and women staying at home to look after children

Answer 75

Many new right/ conservative policies were criticised by feminists arguing that their policies were counter to improving gender equality. As well as this, their policies were also criticised for 'blaming the victim', in other words, the policies blamed single parent families for societal problems. In reality, many single parent families are headed by working parents who do not rely on benefits as the main source of their income. Many sociologists and politicians argue that the families policies developed by the new right in fact increased inequalities and poverty.

Answer 76

In 1997, Blair stated 'We cannot say we want a strong and secure society when we ignore its very foundations: family life. This is not about preaching to individuals about their family lives. It is addressing a huge social problem'. He went on to cite: teenage pregnancies, families unable to care for elderly members, poor parental role models, truancy, educational underachievement and unhappiness - as social problems which can stem from the failure to achieve a happy family life. He pledged that the government would examine every area of government policy to see how it could strengthen family life.

Answer 77

Silva and Smart suggest that Blair was really talking about a specific type of family life. They state that 'strong families' are more likely to be seen as traditional nuclear families. Like the new right, New labour admitted that they thought family structures become more 'complicated' when they are single parent or reconstituted. Therefore, Silva and Smart state that the measures and policies initially introduced by New Labour were based around strengthening 'conventional' families.

Answer 78

The government paper 'Supporting Families' 1999 set out New labour views and their intentions to strengthen families and marriage. While, they were not so critical of other lifestyles and less conventional household types as the New Right, they still saw the nuclear family as the most desirable family unit but wanted to support diverse families. They rejected the New Right view that the family should have just one (male) earner and recognised the increased participation of women in the workplace. Therefore, New Labour policies favoured the kind of dual-earner neo-conventional family described by the functionalist Chester. Furthermore, rather than regarding single parent families as a moral problem, New labour introduced policies that supported them, for example helping single parents with childcare so that they could gain qualifications or return to work

Answer 79

New Deal (1998) - This was designed to help and assist single parents to return to work if they desire to do so; Working Families Tax Credit - designed for low-income families. It allowed parents to claim tax relief against a proportion of their childcare costs to enable parents to work. More generous maternity leave and pay and paternity leave - sending a clear message of support and acceptance that both parents are likely to work and a recognition of the increased role that fathers play in their children's life Free childcare for two and a half year olds - This made it easier for parents to return to work (it was also introduced to help children from poorer backgrounds access preschool care so that they were ready for their education) Winter fuel payments for the elderly - designed to assist with heating costs and reduce health issues The Adoption and Children Act 2002 - This came into effect in 2005 and gave single people and unmarried cohabiting couples including same-sex couples, the same right to adopt as married couples The Civil Partnership Act 2004 - This gave same-sex couples the same legal rights as married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property

Answer 80

However, New right critics argued that New labour intervened too much in family life, arguing that this results in a 'nanny state' where individuals rely on the state rather than taking personal responsibility.

Answer 81

The conservatives have long been divided between what Hayton (2010) calls the modernisers and traditionalists. This division has meant that it has been difficult for them to maintain a consistent policy line on the family.

Answer 82

The influence of traditionalists have weakened by the fact that the conservatives had to share power in the coalition with the liberal democrats. Therefore, Nick Clegg was promoting policies such as the introduction of gay marriage (2015) which provided equal opportunities for gay couples and the increase in paternity benefits which supports the idea that gender roles are becoming more equal and shared acknowledging the increasing role that fathers play in their children's lives. Meanwhile, David Cameron continued to promote policies suggesting that he regards the nuclear family, with traditional gender roles as desirable and ideal

Answer 83

Nick Clegg was promoting policies such as the introduction of gay marriage (2015) which provided equal opportunities for gay couples and the increase in paternity benefits which supports the idea that gender roles are becoming more equal and shared acknowledging the increasing role that fathers play in their children's lives. Meanwhile, David Cameron continued to promote policies suggesting that he regards the nuclear family, with traditional gender roles as desirable and ideal.

Answer 84

- The reintroduction of the Married Couples Tax allowance: Cut by new labour, this policy clearly indicates a preference and adds an incentive for marriage over cohabitation. - The legal aid budget was cut substantially: meaning that some vulnerable groups, such as women would be unable to access legal advice if they are experiencing domestic violence - Child benefits - became means tested: what had been a universal benefit for all parents was cute for people earning above a certain threshold - Troubled Families Programme (2011) - designed to help families who have problems and cause problems to the community around them (they see this type of family as an expensive unit), by working with local authorities the aim was to get children back into school, reduce youth crime and antisocial behaviour - The scaling back and cutting of benefits: intended to reduce welfare dependency.

Answer 85

Critics argue that the conservative government's financial austerity policies reflected the New right's desire to cut public spending, leading to great hardship for poorest groups in society, They also attack coalition policies for failing to support alternatives to the nuclear family and not reflecting the experiences of family life for many people in contemporary society.

Answer 86

- Doubled free preschool childcare for 2/4 year olds from 15 hrs to 30 hrs - They scrapped the entitlement to housing benefit for those over the age of 21 - Child Support Agency renamed/reordered to child maintenance service - Child benefits now limited to two children for those on benefit (2017) There has not been huge government initiative on the family due to the government focusing on Brexit

Answer 87

Functionalists see the state as acting in the interests of society as a whole and its social policy as being for the good of all. They see social policy as helping families perform their functions more effectively and make life better for its members.

Answer 88

Modernisers are individuals who recognise that families are more diverse and are willing to reflect this in their policies

Answer 89

Traditionalists are individuals who favour a New Right view and reject diversity as they see it as morally wrong

Answer 90

Marxists do not see social policies as benefitting all members of society equally. They see the state and its policies as serving capitalism. For example, they see the low level of state pensions as evidence that once workers are too old to produce profits they are 'maintained' at the lowest possible cost. Similarly, they do not accept the functionalist 'march of progress' view that better welfare policies produce happier families

Answer 91

Feminists believe that all social institutions, including the state and its policies, help to maintain women's subordinate position and the unequal gender division of labour in the family. Social policy often works on assumptions about what the 'normal' family is like and in doing so, the effect of these social policies often reinforces that type of family at the expense of others. Land (1978) argues that social policy often assume that the ideal family is the patriarchal nuclear family with a male provided and female homemaker, along with dependent children. Tax and benefits policies assume the main wage-earner is the husband can make it impossible for wives to claim welfare benefits in their own right, since it is expected husbands will provide which then reinforces women's dependence on their husbands. Leonard (1978) argues that even when social policy appear to support women, they may still act as a form of social control over them, reinforcing patriarchal assumptions and dictating family roles and responsibilities, e.g. maternity leave and child benefit.

Answer 92

However, feminists have been criticised as other policies such as equal pay and sex discrimination laws, benefits for lone parents, refuges for women escaping domestic violence and equal rights to divorce could all be said to challenge the patriarchal family

Answer 93

Land (1978) argues that social policy often assume that the ideal family is the patriarchal nuclear family with a male provided and female homemaker, along with dependent children. Tax and benefits policies assume the main wage-earner is the husband can make it impossible for wives to claim welfare benefits in their own right, since it is expected husbands will provide which then reinforces women's dependence on their husbands.

Answer 94

Leonard (1978) argues that even when social policy appear to support women, they may still act as a form of social control over them, reinforcing patriarchal assumptions and dictating family roles and responsibilities, e.g. maternity leave and child benefit.

Answer 95

sociologist Donzelot (1877) sees social policy as a form of state power over families. He uses the postmodernist Foucault's (1976) concept of surveillance. He sees power not just as something held by the government or state, but as diffused throughout society and found within all relationships. In particular, he sees professionals such as doctors and social workers as exercising power over their clients by using their expert knowledge. Donzelot applies these ideas to the family. He is interested in how professionals carry out surveillance of families, arguing that social workers, health visitors and doctors use their knowledge to control and change families and calls this 'the policing of families'. Surveillance is not targeted on all social classes. Poor families are more likely to be seen as 'problem' families and the cause of crime and anti-social behaviour. These are the families that professionals target for 'improvement' e.g parents of young offenders, truants or badly-behaved children may be forced to attend parenting classes to learn the 'correct' way to bring up their children. Donzelot is critical of social policy and sees it as a form of state control over the family.

Answer 96

Feminists argue that a country's policies on taxation, childcare, welfare services and equal opportunities will affect whether women can work full-time or whether they have to forgo paid work to care for children or elderly relatives. They believe that in the main, social policy reinforces the patriarchal family. However, they recognise that this is not inevitable and that social policies can and have been introduced in some countries to encourage more equal family relationships. Drew (1995) uses the concept of 'gender regimes' to describe how social policy in different countries can either encourage and discourage gender equality in the family and at work. Drew identifies two types of gender regime following types of family policies; - Familistic gender regimes - policies based on a traditional gender division e.g. in Greece, there is little state welfare or publicly funded childcare reflecting a traditional division of labour - therefore, women have to rely heavily on support from their extended kin rather than social policy. - Individualistic gender regimes - where policies are based on the belief that husbands and wives are treated the same. Wives are not assumed to be financially dependent on their husbands, so each partner has a separate entitlement to state benefits, e.g in Sweden, policies treats husbands and wives as equally responsible both for breadwinning and domestic tasks. Equal opportunities policies, state provision of childcare, parental leave and good quality welfare services mean that women are less dependent on their husbands and have more opportunities to work.

Answer 97

Drew (1995) uses the concept of 'gender regimes' to describe how social policy in different countries can either encourage and discourage gender equality in the family and at work. Drew identifies two types of gender regime following types of family policies; - Familistic gender regimes - policies based on a traditional gender division e.g. in Greece, there is little state welfare or publicly funded childcare reflecting a traditional division of labour - therefore, women have to rely heavily on support from their extended kin rather than social policy. - Individualistic gender regimes - where policies are based on the belief that husbands and wives are treated the same. Wives are not assumed to be financially dependent on their husbands, so each partner has a separate entitlement to state benefits, e.g in Sweden, policies treats husbands and wives as equally responsible both for breadwinning and domestic tasks. Equal opportunities policies, state provision of childcare, parental leave and good quality welfare services mean that women are less dependent on their husbands and have more opportunities to work.

Answer 98

Drew (1995) argues that most EU countries are moving away from the traditional patriarchal family towards individualistic gender regimes. However, policies such as publicly funded childcare do not come cheap and involve major conflicts about who should benefit from social policies and who should pay for them. Therefore, it would be naïve to assume a 'march of progress' towards gender equality inevitable.

Answer 99

Feminists point out that since the global recession that began in 2008, cutbacks in government spending throughout Europe have seen the state retreat from providing welfare and have led to pressure on women to take more responsibility for caring for family members. Neo-liberal welfare policies, where individuals are encouraged to use the market rather than the state to meet their needs have also contributed to this trend (encourage people to rely on private industries/providers rather than the government e.g private healthcare, private pensions, private schools) Nevertheless, differences between European countries demonstrate that social policies can play a significant role in promoting or preventing gender equality in the family

Answer 100

- Married couples tax allowance 1986 | - 1993 child support agency

Answer 101

- Divorce reform act 1969 | - Adoption and children Act 2003

Answer 102

- Maternity leave | - Child benefits

Answer 103

Functionalists take a consensus view of the family. They see it as a universal institution that performs essential functions for society as a whole and for all its members. Parsons sees a functional fit between the nuclear family and modern's society need for a mobile labour force Marxists see the family as serving the economic and ideological needs of capitalism, such as the transmission of private property from one generation of capitalists to the next Feminists see the family perpetuating patriarchy. Liberal, radical and Marxist feminists differ over the cause of women's subordination and the solution to it. Functionalist, marxist and feminist theories have all been criticised for neglecting family diversity and individuals capacity to choose their family arrangements The personal life perspective argues that we must focus on the meanings people give to relationships and on how they define what counts as family

Answer 104

- other-non nuclear family structures are just as capable of fulfilling the essential functions Murdock believes meets the needs of society and its members - Marxists and feminists question and reject Murdock's 'rose-tinted' consensus assumption that all nuclear families carry out these functions and meet the needs of both wider society and all the different members of the family. - assumes only heterosexual relationships and does not consider same-sex or diverse family types - disregards women's mental stability and women's choice in these gender specific roles - outdated, patriarchal and sexist assumptions - ignores the existence of neo-conventional families - parenting roles can be stressful and create more worry and anxiety e.g financial worries - ignores the realities of parenting - Some may be critical of the roles and functions the family performs as they are fixed gender roles - may view roles as patronizing and patriarchal as pressure are placed on males to be the breadwinner and underestimates the changing role and financial independency of women today. - Approach seems to only benefit men, as women are expected to not only be the caregiver but homemaker - disregards the wishes of women

Answer 105

- children being socialised and normalised into accepting hierarchy e.g family structures - (parent / child, older sibling / younger sibling) and being well practised in subordination and becoming subservient - reflecting why workers continue the system of capitalism as it is embedded in their minds and lives - families acting as a unit of consumption for capitalism - families influencing their children by influencing the idea they should not be aspirational and do the same work as their parents - highlight how through the way families operate they contribute to capitalism and are taught to conform and obey as a preparation for capitalist society

Answer 106

- Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society. This ignores the wide variety of family structures found in society today. - Feminists argue that the marxist emphasis on class and capitalism underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family. In the feminist view, these are more fundamental than class inequalities and the family primarily serves the interests of men not capitalism. - Functionalists, argue that marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members

Answer 107

- other feminists criticise liberal feminists for failing to challenge the underlying causes of women's oppression - for being too optimistic as they believe that changes in the law or people's attitudes will be enough to bring gender equality.

Answer 108

- sees capitalism as the only source of oppression for women - families are more diverse, so the nuclear family is less common so the theory is less applicable - ignores women have made progress, in family life - no longer defined by social expectations, changing role of women - old arguments - family structures mentioned are not reflective of UK contemporary society together.

Answer 109

- do not account for males who are not violent or not all women are abused - there could also be male victims of abuse - separatism would be hard to implement because of heterosexual attraction - fails to recognise that women's position has improved as women can now divorce, have better job opportunities, control over their fertility and have the ability to choose to marry and cohabit etc

Answer 110

- different feminism has been criticised for neglecting the fact that all women share many of the same experiences. For example, they all face a risk of domestic violence and sexual assault, low pay and so on

Answer 111

- They suggest full gender equality would be achieved in the labour market, if women are freed from their domestic responsibilities - change of fundamental structure of the family - They would suggest cheap / government subsided childcare so women have a choice to work

Answer 112

- some people in society are in denial believing that domestic violence occurs rarely or believe it only occurs to certain groups of society - highlights the division of public and private understanding of the issue - Male dominance in institutions such as the police and courts explain the reluctance to deal effectively with cases of domestic violence or their reasons of non-intervention - The idea that families are safe, so the problem of domestic violence is defied

Answer 113

- criticised for taking too of a broad view as by taking a wide range different kinds of personal relationships we ignore what is special about relationships that are based on blood or marriage

Answer 114

- Stable satisfaction of the sex drive (sexual function) - reproduction of the next generation (reproduction) ``` - socialisation of the young into society’s shared norms and values (socialisation) ``` - meeting its members’ economic needs, such as food and shelter. (economic) - meeting its members emotional needs, such as providing love and support to its members (emotional)

Answer 115

It socialises children into the idea that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable and offers an illusory ‘haven’ from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism outside.

Answer 116

- It tends to assume the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society and ignores the wide variety of other family structures found in society today. - It underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family. - It ignores the benefits that the family provides for its members.

Answer 117

Marxist feminists see capitalism as the main cause of women’s oppression, whereas radical feminists see men as the main cause.

Answer 118

An approach focusing on the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships (rather than one that focuses on the supposed functions of the family or the roles its structure imposes on members, for example).

Answer 119

Any three of the following: relationships with friends; fictive kin; gay and lesbian chosen families; dead relatives; pets.

Answer 120

Any one of the following: restricting couples to one child (e.g. China); setting up infertility treatment centres, making divorce more difficult, lowering the legal age of marriage, making unmarried adults and childless couples pay extra income tax (e.g. communist Rumania); restricting access to abortion and contraception; keeping women out of the workforce, (e.g. Nazi Germany); the state intervening in cases of child abuse (e.g. Britain).

Answer 121

Social policies that reward irresponsible or anti-social behaviour.

Answer 122

Any two of the following: banning the promotion of homosexuality by local authorities; setting up the Child Support Agency to enforce maintenance payments by absent parents; introducing Parenting Orders for parents of truants and young offenders.

Answer 123

Any two of the following: longer maternity leave; Working Families Tax Credit; The New Deal; civil partnerships; giving unmarried couples the same adoption rights as married couples; outlawing discrimination on grounds of sexuality.

Answer 124

Policies are often based on assumptions about what the ‘normal’ family is like and in turn the effect of the policy is to reinforce that particular family type.

Answer 125

Because individualistic gender regimes are based on the belief that husbands and wives should be treated as separate, equal individuals. Wives are not assumed to be financially dependent on their husbands, so each partner has a separate entitlement to state benefits.

Answer 126

Policies where individuals and families are encouraged to use the market rather than the state to meet their needs, e.g. private pension provision and private care of the old.