Education - external and internal factors

Question 1

What does the social class gap refer to?

Answer 1

The social class gap refers to social class divide in educational achievement as a child from a working class background is less likely to be in a nursery or pre-school play group, leave school with 5 or more A*-C (9-4) grades at GCSE and progress to university as they have shorter educational career compared to their middle class peers

Question 2

What did Perry and Francis find in their review of research into differences in educational achievement?

Answer 2

Perry and Francis found that social class remains the strongest predictor of educational achievement in the UK, where the social class gap for educational achievement is the most significant in the developed world. They recognise that the main three political parties do recognise this as a policy concern which emphasises the big extent of wider social inequality in the UK which acts as a barrier to meritocracy and social mobility.

Question 3

What are the two types of explanations for explaining social class differences in education

Answer 3

• internal explanation

- external explanation

Question 4

What is the external explanation?

Answer 4

The external explanation refers to an explanation which is preoccupied with explaining the social class gap as a consequence of factors outside of schools e.g. home background, parental support, cultural beliefs and values etc.

Question 5

What is the internal explanation?

Answer 5

The internal explanation refers to an explanation which is preoccupied with explaining the social class gap as a consequence of factors inside of schools e.g. the type of school a pupil attends, the set/band/streams they are in, teacher - pupil interactions and pupil sub-culture

Question 6

State the external explanations for social class differences in educational achievement

Answer 6

Material deprivation
Cultural deprivation
Cultural Capital

Question 7

What do sociologists focus on in relation to external factors ?

Answer 7

Sociologists who focus on external factors emphasise the influence of home, culture and wider society such as,

• material deprivation - housing, diet & health and finances.
• cultural deprivation - intellectual development, attitudes and values, language
• cultural capital - Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital, Sullivan’s research and educational capital

Question 8

Explain the theory of material deprivation

Answer 8

Theories of material deprivation are linked to economic poverty. The view is as a result of a lack of financial resources in working class homes, children are deprived of material resources and facilities which would enhance their educational progress and thus achievement. Low income is understood as creating a barrier to learning, where children are unable to make the most of educational opportunities. Therefore, as a result of material deprivation working class children are disadvantaged in school and in their education

Question 9

State examples of material deprivation

Answer 9

• lack of stationary
• lack of internet/technology/computer
• lack of food and a balanced diet
• lack of warm clothes and a heated home
• overcrowded house - no space to work or sleep
• missing opportunities such as school trips as a result of financial situation

Question 10

What percentage of failing schools are found in deprived areas

Answer 10

90% of failing schools are found in deprived areas

Question 11

Why is poverty closely linked to educational achievement

Answer 11

• 90% of failing schools are found in deprived areas
• Douglas argues that a ‘barren’ household is not the best ingredient for educational success as these households are lacking in resources.

Question 12

Explain how the external factor of housing can affect educational achievement

Answer 12

Poor housing can affect pupil’s achievement both directly and indirectly. Overcrowding can make it harder to study and do homework and can lead to disturbed sleep from sharing bedrooms and young children’s development can be impaired through a lack of space for safe play and exploration. Poor housing can impact on a child’s health and welfare leading to more accidents in the home and cold or damp housing can cause ill health. Families in temporary accommodation suffer more psychological distress, infection and accidents and find that their schooling is disrupted from constantly having to move.

Question 13

Explain how the external factor of diet & health can affect educational achievement

Answer 13

Howard notes that young people from poorer homes have a lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals. Poor nutrition affects health, weakening the immune system and lowering energy levels - this may lead to difficulties concentrating in class and more absences from emotional or behavioural problems.

According to Wilkinson, among 10 year olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders, all of which are likely to have a negative effect on their education.

Blanden and Machin found that children from low-income families were more likely to engage in externalising behaviour (such as fighting and temper tantrums), which are likely to disrupt their schooling

Question 14

Explain how the external factor of finances can affect educational achievement

Answer 14

Children from poorer families have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement. Bull refers to this as ‘cost of free schooling’. Research by Tanner et al found that the cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, calculators and sport, music and art equipment, places a heavy burden on poor families. Smith and Noble add that poverty acts as a barrier to learning in other ways, such as inability to afford private schooling or tuition and poorer quality schools. Furthermore, Ridge found that children in poverty are more likely to take on jobs and that this often has a negative impact on school work. Going to university involves getting into debt to cover tuition fees, books and living expenses. Attitudes towards debt may deter prospective working-class students from going to university.

Question 15

What did Callender and Jackson find in their research about the external factor of finances

Answer 15

Research by Callender and Jackson found that working-class students are more debt-averse and saw more costs than benefits from going to university. Those who do go are less likely to receive financial support from their families and are more likely to receive financial support from their families and are more likely to apply to local universities so they could live at home. This gives working class students less opportunity to go to the highest status universities. Additionally, dropout rates are also higher for universities with a large proportion of poor students: for example, 13% at Sunderland, a university with a large working-class intake, but only 1.4% at Oxford, where over 4 in 10 students come from private schools

Question 16

Explain the theory of cultural deprivation

Answer 16

Theories of cultural deprivation are linked to the home, cultural background and parental values. The view is that as a result of socialisation patterns, working class parents do not instill values which encourage children to value school and their education and to be aspirational and ambitious. Working class culture is understood as inadequate - as failing to nurture, stimulate and enrich educational interest and therefore working class children lack the ‘cultural equipment’ essential for educational success and are therefore at a disadvantage.

Question 17

State examples of cultural deprivation

Answer 17

• a ‘book poor’ home - a household with no reading material such as books, newspapers and children’s book which could aid children’s development.
• lacking cultural opportunities e.g. travel, visiting galleries ad museums which would increase cultural and historical knowledge
• WC lack these cultural opportunities which means they are not exposed to enrichment and opportunities,

Question 18

How do cultural deprivation theorists explain why working class children are culturally deprived?

Answer 18

According to cultural deprivation theorists, many working-class families fail to socialise their children adequately. These children grow up ‘culturally deprived’ and lack the cultural equipment required to do well at school so under-achieve.

Question 19

State the three main aspects of cultural deprivation

Answer 19

• intellectual development
• attitudes and values
• language

Question 20

Explain the aspect of intellectual development in relation to cultural deprivation

Answer 20

Intellectual development refers to the development of thinking and reasoning skills, such as the ability to solve problems and use ideas and concepts. Cultural deprivation theorists argue that many working-class homes lack the books, educational toys and activities that would stimulate a child’s intellectual development. Therefore, children from working class homes start school without having developed the intellectual skills required to progress

Question 21

What did douglas find in the longitudinal study of ‘the home and the school’?

Answer 21

Douglas traced the educational careers of 5,362 British children born in the first week of March 1946 through primary school and then followed the progress of 4.720 of the original sample through secondary school up to the age of 16. Comparing the achievement of high ability pupils, he found that 77% of UMC, 60% of LMCA, 53% of UWC and 37% of LWC pupils gained good O-level results. Douglas found that the social class differences in primary socialisation patterns suggest that middle class children receive greater attention and stimulation from their parents which in turns fosters intellectual progress. He based some of his arguments on additional sociological and psychological research identifying social class variations in child-rearing practices. Middle class socialisation patterns are understood as laying a better foundation for high achievement and therefore middle class children are at an advantage as a family and school environments positively reinforce each other

Question 22

Why do cultural deprivation theorists argue that parents attitudes and interest are a key factor in affecting educational achievement?

Answer 22

Cultural deprivation theorists argue that parent’s attitudes and values are a key factor affecting educational achievement. Douglas argues that the single most important factor affecting educational progress was the degree of parental interest shown in a child’s education. He concluded that generally middle class parents take a greater interest in their children’s education and value it more - which motivates children to do well. This he argued was evident from the fact that they are more likely to attend parent evenings, make more frequent visits to school to take to teachers and support children with their homework etc. Douglas notes that parental interest becomes even more important as children get older

Question 23

What did research from hyman find?

Answer 23

Research from Hyman found that the values of the working class create a self imposed barrier to educational and career success. They tend to believe that have less opportunity for individual advancement and place less value on achieving high status jobs - so they see no point in education. Subcultural beliefs and values place a greater value on securing a good steady job straight from school.

Question 24

What are the four key features sugarman argues is apart of the working class subculture

Answer 24

Sugarman argues that working class subculture has four key features that acts as a barrier to educational achievement:

• Present-time orientation
• Immediate Gratification
• Fatalism
• Collectivism

Question 25

Define present time orientation

Answer 25

Present time orientation refers to thinking and living in the present, the here and now which means individuals will place more importance in the present rather than the future

Question 26

Define future time orientation

Answer 26

future time orientation refers to thinking and planning in the future. An example of this would be middle class jobs encourage aspiration as they provide career advancement

Question 27

Define immediate gratification

Answer 27

Immediate gratification refers to wanting benefits, pleasure, satisfaction reward gratification now instead of the future

Question 28

Define deferred gratification

Answer 28

Deferred gratification refers to sacrificing short-term rewards for long term benefits and rewards in the future

Question 29

Define Fatalism

Answer 29

Fatalism refers to the belief that you cannot change how things are as they already predetermined

Question 30

Define Activism

Answer 30

Activism is a more proactive approach where individuals are encouraged to take steps to improve their situation/life and achieve their aspirations

Question 31

Define collectivism

Answer 31

Collectivism refers to a belief that group/collective effort is required to generate change

Question 32

Define Individualism

Answer 32

Individualism refers to emphasising individual achievement and aspirations rather than a group achievement

Question 33

State the middle class values which clash with working class subculture values

Answer 33

• Future time orientation
• Deferred gratification
• Activism
• Individualism

Question 34

What does sugarman claim about the differences in the nature of middle and working class occupations?

Answer 34

Sugarman claims that differences in the nature of middle and working class occupations produce differences in attitudes and values. Middle class jobs are secure careers offering prospects for continuous individual advancement which is in direct contrast to working class jobs. These different values and beliefs are internalised and then passed on to the next generation of each subculture through the socialisation process. He concludes that the subcultural values and attitudes of the working class place them at a distinct disadvantage within the education system because they clash with the middle class values and ethos of the school. School is an extension of middle class values and therefore middle class culture equips children for success whereas working class values fail to do so.

Question 35

Explain the aspect of language in relation to cultural deprivation

Answer 35

The importance of language for educational achievement was highlighted by Bernstein and Englemann. They claim that language used in lower class homes is deficient and as a result, children fail to develop the necessary language skills required in school. Because of this importance of speech to communication and learning, it affects our capacity to be educated and our capacity to articulate our understanding and therefore affects educational achievement

Question 36

What is Bernstein’s socio-linguistic theory?

Answer 36

Bernstein developed a socio-linguistic theory, where he sought to explain how a person’s social class position shapes the sort of language, or more specifically the speech codes that people use.

Question 37

What two codes did Bernstein distinguish between?

Answer 37

• Restricted code

- Elaborated code

Question 38

Explain restricted code

Answer 38

Restricted code is typically language and speech does used by the working class:

• The speaker assumes that listeners share the same set of meanings and experiences - very context bound language
• Meanings conveyed are particularistic - they are specific to the shared situation which means the speaker takes for granted that the audience will grasp their meaning - the code is very implicit
• Sentences tend to be short, often unfinished, grammatically simple and unpredictable and there is limited use of adjectives or adverbs (basic vocabulary)

Question 39

Explain elaborated code

Answer 39

Elaborated language is typically language and speech codes used by the middle class:

• It is used for the transmission of facts and the accurate delivery of processes
• The meanings transmitted are explicit and are characterised by longer, grammatically complex and varied sentences with a wide range of vocabulary
• The speaker does not orientate themselves to the listener, but to the message they are trying/wishing to convey. As such as meanings are universalistic as it is context free

Question 40

What did Bernstein argue about elaborated code?

Answer 40

According to Bernstein, it is the elaborated code that is used education (by teachers, textbooks and in exams) and is therefore vital for educational success. Not only is it taken as the ‘correct’ way to speak and write, but it is also a more effective tool for explicitly conveying meaning and analysing information, for logically and rationally developing an argument and for handling complex concepts - all essential skills in education. Crucially, schools do not teach pupils how to use this code. Early socialisation into the elaborated code means that middle class children are already fluent users of the code when they start school. Thus, they feel ‘at home’ in school and are more likely to succeed. In contrast, working class children, lack the code in which schooling takes place, are likely to feel excluded and to be successful as schools fail to teach them how to use the elaborated code

Question 41

Explain the theory of cultural capital

Answer 41

Theories of cultural capital refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, tastes and abilities of the middle class. Through socialisation middle class children acquire an understanding of what the education system requires for success. middle class culture is a type of capital as it gives an advantage to those who possess it as it valued by the education system and therefore aids educational success

Question 42

State examples of cultural capital (middle/upper culture and activities that have capital)

Answer 42

• socialisation and lifestyle - music taste, art, culture, literature, politics and religion
• cultural capital gained through visiting museums, reading, travelling etc
• cultural capital seen as the opposite of being culturally deprived and it provides an excellent foundation for educational achievement

Question 43

What distinctive cultural explanation did French Marxist sociologist Bourdieu make?

Answer 43

Bourdieu developed a distinctive cultural explanation for the differences in attainment between the social classes. He states that there are important links between the class structure, home background, culture and experiences in schooling which results in social and cultural inequalities being transferred from one generation to the next (schools work in such a way that the middle class remain middle class and the working stay working class). However, unlike cultural deprivation theorists, Bourdieu does not blame the working classes themselves for this. He places responsibility with the class system and the education system for giving middle class pupils advantages and privileges which enable them to succeed within education.

Question 44

What does the term Cultural Capital mean?

Answer 44

Bourdieu uses the term Cultural Capital to refer to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class which they gain through socialisation. He sees middle class culture as a type of capital because, like wealth it gives advantage to those who possess it. Middle class pupils are at an advantage in school as their culture and its language is highly valued. They are therefore, more able to meet the demands of the curriculum and therefore rewarded with qualifications (educational capital). For Bourdieu, schools are therefore not neutral places; they are biased in the favour of the middle classes. Schools reproduce the culture of the dominant class rather than transmitting the culture of society as a whole. For Bourdieu, children born into the middle and upper classes have an inbuilt advantage as their culture has capital and is the culture of the school. He claims that many working class pupils feel devalued and rejected and ‘get the message’ that education is not meant for people like them and respond by truanting , early leaving or just not trying. His primary argument, therefore is that the education system reproduces the dominant culture and in doing so helps to reproduce the class system

Question 45

Explain Sullivan’s research linked to cultural capital

Answer 45

Sullivan used questionnaires to conduct a survey of 465 pupils in four schools. To assess their cultural capital, she asked them about a range of activities such as reading and TV viewing habits and whether they visited galleries, museums and the theatre. She also tested their vocabulary and knowledge of cultural figures. She found that those who read complex fiction and watched serious TV documentaries developed a wider vocabulary and greater cultural knowledge indicating greater cultural capital. The children with greatest cultural capital were children of graduates and these pupils were more likely to be successful at GCSE and middle class. Supporting Bourdieu, Ball and Gertwitz also state that middle class parents are more privileged, they have more cultural capital and are able to use this to ensure that their children secure a place in the school of their choice

Question 46

State criticisms of the cultural deprivation theory

Answer 46

Cultural deprivation theory (CDT) has been widely criticised as an explanation of social class differences in education.

• Neil kiddie (1973) describes CDT as a ‘myth’. She dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background, arguing that child cannot be deprived of its own culture as everyone has their own child.

She argues that WC children are culturally different, not culturally deprived. They fail because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by MC values.

• Keddie also claims that CDT is a victim blaming explain - it deflects attention away from the problem’s children face in school and blames their home background, rather than focusing on challenging discrimination in school and teachers anti-wc prejudices.
• Trayna and Williams (1986) critique the view that WC speech is restricted and inadequate. They claim that the problem is not WC language, but school’s attitude towards it. They claim that teachers have a ‘speech hierarchy’ where they label MC speech highest and WC lowest
• Blackstone and Mortimore (1994) challenge the idea Wc parents are not interested in their children’s education. They recognise that WC parents may attend fewer parents evenings etc. However, they argue that this is not because they lack interest but because they work longer or irregular hours and would lose income if they took time off work or they are put off by the school’s MC culture. Also there may be other factors such as parents not being able to pay for childcare or transport costs which prevents them from attending parents evening or attending school on a regular basis.
  Also, they may want to help their child progress but may lack the education to do so. There is some evidence that schools with mainly WC pupils have less effective systems of parent-school contacts, thus making it more difficult for parents to keep in touch about their children’s progress
• the culturally deprived theory is considered outdated as the theory was developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Society was very different then as it was more likely that the WC communities did not value education in the same way they do today. Education is valued much more in today’s society than in the past - by all social classes
• there are children who are culturally deprived who succeed in education suggesting that cultural deprivation is only part of the explanation
• Therefore, there are many criticisms of cultural deprived theory, which call into question its validity and relevance

Question 47

State criticisms of material deprivation theory

Answer 47

• Economic poverty and material deprivation (MD) are real problems impacting on children’s lives and educational experiences. However, while material factors clearly play a part in achievement, the fact that some children from poor families succeed suggests that MD is only part of the explanation
• For a number of years, successive government have attempted to overcome MD (and CD) by introducing programmes of compensatory education. These certainly do not alleviate MD more but attempt to provide opportunities to children from more disadvantaged backgrounds by encouraging greater participation in higher education

Question 48

What type of approach is the interactionist theory

Answer 48

internal approach

Question 49

How has sociologists explained working class underachievement in education? and how do internal sociologists explain it?

Answer 49

Working class underachievement is explained by sociologists through the theories of cultural and material deprivation or other structural constraints. However, these explanations may be challenged by interactionist sociologists working within the social action approach with their roots in interpretive sociology. Interactionists have shifted the focus of analysis and concentrate their attention on the processes internal to school. They criticise other sociologists for failing to give sufficient attention to the impact of schooling itself. Through detailed in depth qualitative studies, they have illuminated the way in which school itself and figures within it contribute to differences in achievement

Question 50

How do interactionists attempt to understand the meanings of interaction and how individuals define situations and how they see themselves in relation to education?

Answer 50

Interactionists attempt to understand the meaning of interaction and how individuals define situations and how they see themselves. To interactionists, your view of yourself, your self-concept is produced in interaction with others. That is, how you see yourself is partly formed by the view that you think others have of you e,g you might think you are funny, but if people don’t laugh at you and give you positive feedback, you may be forced to reconsider your view of yourself.

Question 51

What is the interactionists theory on education?

Answer 51

In relation to education, interactionists argue that a pupil’s self concept is influenced by teachers and other pupils. Interactionists see education as directed by meanings and definitions which are negotiated in schools and claim that class differences in education are socially constructed in the classroom. Drawing on the concept of labelling, they believe that teachers have specific expectations of pupils and more general expectations of particular streams, sets or bands, If a label is fixed, teachers may start to interpret a pupils behaviour in light of the label. They argue that labelling can go on to affect the self concept of an individual to the degree that they may begin to act in terms of it. When individuals conform to a label that had been applied to them, a self fulfilling prophecy is said to have occurred. One of the most important aspects of the interactionist approach concerns the way in which teachers make sense of and respond to the behaviour of their pupils.

Question 52

define self concept

Answer 52

the self concept refers how you see yourself and how you view other peoples perception of you (self-perception)

Question 53

define labelling

Answer 53

labelling refers to when teachers may make assumptions / judgements about students about their social class, band etc

Question 54

define self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 54

the self fulfilling prophecy is when an individual is labelled and they start to conform to this label and expectations attached to them

Question 55

State the internal factors linked to educational achievement

Answer 55

• Labelling
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Setting and Streaming
• Public subcultures
• The school
• Marketisation and selection

Question 56

Explain the internal factor of labelling in relation to education

Answer 56

Hargreaves et al (1927) analysed the way pupils came to be typed and labelled by teacher. Based on interviews and observations they examine the way teachers ‘got to know’ their new pupils. They identified three stages to this process: speculation, elaboration and stabilisation

1 - speculation - teachers made guesses about what types of pupils they were dealing with based on factors such as ability and enthusiasm for work, how likeable they were, appearance, personality, conformity to discipline etc. At this point, teachers are tentative in their views and are willing to amend them.

2 - elaboration - at this point a teacher’s hypothesis is tested and confirmed or contradicted. They become more confident in their judgement of pupils

3 - stabilisation - teachers now feel that they know the pupils and are therefore not surprised or puzzled by their actions. From this point, the future actions of pupils will be evaluated in terms of this label

Becker (1977) made his observations in a Chicago high school. He found that classifications, judgements and evaluations of students were made in terms of a standard ‘ideal pupil’ and found that pupils from middle class non-manual backgrounds come closest to this ideal as they tend to have ‘cultural capital’ and adequately socialised. He claimed that the meanings in terms of which students are assessed, judged and evaluated can have significant effects on attitude and behaviour in the classroom, as well as achievement. Becker found that teachers perceived pupils in a particular way and this expectancy influenced how they worked and interacted with students.

Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963) who argued that their teachers are in an important position to affect a pupil’s progress. They conducted a study examining the decisions that tutors made in an American high school. The tutors had an important role determining student’s access to college and course. They found that rather than evaluating pupils on the basis of their ability, social class background was the most influential factor. Pupils of middle-class origins were seen to be ‘natural’ prospective college students. Cirourcel and Kitsuse concluded that classifications of pupil’s abilities and potential were influenced by a whole range of non-academic factors. Tutors labelled pupils according to social class background

Question 57

Explain Hargreaves et al (1927) theory about labelling ?

Answer 57

Hargreaves et al (1927) analysed the way pupils came to be typed and labelled by teacher. Based on interviews and observations they examine the way teachers ‘got to know’ their new pupils. They identified three stages to this process: speculation, elaboration and stabilisation

1 - speculation - teachers made guesses about what types of pupils they were dealing with based on factors such as ability and enthusiasm for work, how likeable they were, appearance, personality, conformity to discipline etc. At this point, teachers are tentative in their views and are willing to amend them.

2 - elaboration - at this point a teacher’s hypothesis is tested and confirmed or contradicted. They become more confident in their judgement of pupils

3 - stabilisation - teachers now feel that they know the pupils and are therefore not surprised or puzzled by their actions. From this point, the future actions of pupils will be evaluated in terms of this label

Question 58

Explain Becker’s theory about labelling?

Answer 58

Becker (1977) made his observations in a Chicago high school. He found that classifications, judgements and evaluations of students were made in terms of a standard ‘ideal pupil’ and found that pupils from middle class non-manual backgrounds come closest to this ideal as they tend to have ‘cultural capital’ and adequately socialised. He claimed that the meanings in terms of which students are assessed, judged and evaluated can have significant effects on attitude and behaviour in the classroom, as well as achievement. Becker found that teachers perceived pupils in a particular way and this expectancy influenced how they worked and interacted with students.

Question 59

Explain Cicourel and kitsuse (1963)’s theory about labelling?

Answer 59

Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963) who argued that their teachers are in an important position to affect a pupil’s progress. They conducted a study examining the decisions that tutors made in an American high school. The tutors had an important role determining student’s access to college and course. They found that rather than evaluating pupils on the basis of their ability, social class background was the most influential factor. Pupils of middle-class origins were seen to be ‘natural’ prospective college students. Cirourcel and Kitsuse concluded that classifications of pupil’s abilities and potential were influenced by a whole range of non-academic factors. Tutors labelled pupils according to social class background

Question 60

Explain the internal factor of self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 60

Rosenthal and Jacobson research was designed to test the idea of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Conducting their research in an elementary school in California, they examined the effects and consequences of teacher’s definitions and expectations of pupils. As part of their research they arranged for all pupils in the school to sit a standard intelligence test and then they informed the teacher of each class the names of pupils who, on the basis of the test results would be expected to make rapid progress. Unknown to the teachers, Rosenthal and Jacobson had selected the names of the pupils at random. Therefore, the difference between the selected pupils and the rest was only in the mind of the teacher. A year later, they returned to the school and re-tested all of the pupils as a group were any different from the other, Rosenthal and Jacobson concluded that their progress was due to higher teachers expectations. They assumed that teachers must have communicated and conveyed their higher expectations to the pupils and they acted in terms of the them, which in result led to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 61

How have interactionists been criticised for the idea of labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 61

Interactionists have been accused of generalising the effects of labelling:
- they have been criticised for assuming that the same type of label is applied to a pupil by all teachers and for believing that labelling inevitably leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

• This positions pupils as passive when they are often active and have the ability and power to resist labels and prove teachers wrong
• negative labels can actually motivate students and have positive effects which therefore shows how the consequences of labelling are not always predictable as shown in fuller’s research where she conducted a research in a london comprehensive school with a group of black working class girls in year 11. They were aware of the low expectations that teachers had of them, however whilst they were anti-school, they were pro-education which meant despite this negative labelling they succeeded and did not produce a self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 62

Explain Fuller’s research which confirmed the idea that negative labelling can actually motivate students and have positive effects

Answer 62

Research by fuller confirms the idea that negative labelling can actually motivate students and have positive effects. She conducted research in a london comprehensive school with a group of black working-class in year 11. They were aware of the low expectations that teachers had of them, however whilst they were anti-school, they were pro-education and despite negative labelling they succeeded and did not produce a self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 63

Explain what is meant by setting and streaming

Answer 63

Setting and streaming are ways of grouping pupils according to their ability. Setting is where whole classes of pupils are put into different groups or sets for particular subjects while streaming involves grouping them for all subjects. Research has shown that being placed in a low set or stream which may undermine pupil’s confidence and discourage them from trying. Teachers may have lower expectations and be less ambitious and give less knowledge to lower set/stream pupils.

Question 64

Explain the internal factor of setting and streaming in relation to education

Answer 64

Keddie found that teachers taught those in higher streams/sets differently from those in lower groups. Higher streams/sets were expected to behave better and do more work, teachers gave them more and different types of educational knowledge, which in turn gave them greater opportunities for educational success. She found that working class pupils (who are more likely to be in lower streams) might underachieve partly because they have not been given access to the knowledge required for educational success

Ball conducted research at Beachside comprehensive and found that top stream students were ‘warmed up’ by encouragement to achieve highly and to follow academic courses of study. In contrast, lower stream students were ‘cooled-out’ and encouraged to follow lower status vocational and practical courses and consequently achieved lower levels of academic success, frequently leaving school at the earliest opportunity. Ball found that setting and streaming is often linked to social class and therefore the higher a pupil’s social class, the greater the chance of being allocated to a top stream. In this way, Ball conducted that setting and streaming contribute to the underachievement of the working-class pupils. He found that one of the effects of streaming, setting and labelling is to deprive those who are labelled as ‘failures’ in the bottom streams of status. In response to this, many often rebel against the school.

Question 65

Explain the internal factor of pupil subcultures in relation to education

Answer 65

Hargreaves found that bottom stream pupils often rebel against the school and develop an alternative set of values, attitudes and behaviour in opposition to the academic aims of the school. This is called an anti-school or counter-school subculture. Hargreaves found that the anti-school subculture provided a means for pupils to improve their own self-esteem by achieving the success and status in their peer groups that was denied to them by the school. As bottom stream pupils, they are more likely to be from working class backgrounds and this further contributes to their underachievement.

Lacey also conducted a study of a boy’s grammar school where lacey found that streaming polarised boys into a pro-school and an anti-school subculture. Middle class pupils found in high streams were committed to the values of the school and gained their status through the approved academic route. Their values are of the school and they are therefore form a pro-school subculture. This can be contrasted to the anti-school subculture.

Question 66

Explain the internal factor of the school in relation to education

Answer 66

Rutter et al’s study entitled ‘fifteen thousand hours: secondary schools and their effects on children’ argued that ‘good’ schools make a difference to the life chances of all pupils. The features of the school’s organisation which makes a difference and makes a ‘good’ school includes: teachers being well prepared for lessons and setting and marking classwork and homework regularly, having high expectations of pupil’s academic performance, setting examples of behaviour, placing emphasis on praise and reward, treating pupils as reasonable people and taking an interest in and encouraging pupils to do well. They also found that a ‘good’ school has an ethos and atmosphere that reflects the above points and has a mixture of abilities in the school.

Question 67

Explain the internal factors of marketisation and selection in relation to education (gilbourn and Youdell’s explanation)

Answer 67

Gilbourn and youdell argue that marketisation and selection explains why schools are under pressure to stream and select pupils. For example, schools need to achieve a good league table position if they are to attract pupils and funding. The policy of this publishing league tables creates what Gilbourn and Youdell call the ‘A-to-C economy’. This is a system in which schools ration their time, effort and resources concentrating them on those pupils who they perceive as having the potential to get five or more grade Cs and so boost the schools league table position which they refer this process as the ‘educational triage’.

Triage literally means ‘sorting’ and they claim that the A to C economy produces educational triage as schools will categorise pupils into three categories ‘those who will pass anyway’ , ‘those with potential’ and ‘hopeless cases’. Teachers do this using notions of ‘ability’ in which working class and black pupils are labelled as lacking ability. As a result they are likely to be labelled as ‘hopeless cases’ segregated into lower streams offering a different curriculum and exams. This produces a self-fulfilling prophecy and failure. However, unlike interactionists they link triage to marketisation policies within the education system as a whole and show how these combined with teachers stereotypical ideas of pupils lead to differences in achievement

Marketisation also explains why schools are under pressure to select more able, largely middle-class pupils who will gain the school a higher position in the league tables. Then those schools with a good league table position will be better placed to attract other able/middle class pupils making the school more popular and so increasing its funding. While popular schools can afford to be more selective and screen out less able or more ‘difficult’ pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds, unpopular schools are obliged to take them, get worse results, become less popular and see their funding further reduced. These pressures have resulted in increased social class segregation between schools

Question 68

Explain the internal factor of marketisation and selection in relation to education (Bartlett explanation)

Answer 68

Bartlett argues that marketisation leads to popular schools (a) cream skimming which refers to selecting higher ability pupils who gain the best results and cost less to teach and (b) silt-shifting which refers to off-loading pupils with learning difficulties who are expensive to teach and get poor results. Therefore, it appears that marketisation and selection processes have created a polarised education system which refers to popular, successful, well-resourced schools with more able largely middle class intake at one extreme and unpopular, failing and under resourced schools with low-achieving working class pupils at the other.

Question 69

State criticisms about internal factors used to explain differences in social class educational achievement

Answer 69

• self fulfilling prophecy can be criticised for assuming that labels made by teachers will lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy as pupils may resist negative labels and prove them wrong
• negative labels may motivate students to prove their teachers and schools which has a positive effect.
• Anti school subcultures are not limited to certain streams as top streams may have an anti-school subculture while bottom streams may have a pro-school subculture
• internal theorists can be criticised for ignoring external factors which also plays into social class educational differences e.g. home, cultural factors which are relevant to achievements
• can be criticised for suggesting that all teachers label based on social class and are unprofessional as they would treat their pupils unequally because of social class
• teachers may want to improve/ champion wc students rather than discriminate as some may put effort into helping disadvantaged students
• labels do not always lead to an inevitable outcome.
• students may feel pressured by positive and high expectations and prove their teachers wrong by underachieving
• effects on streaming/sets are not the same for everyone

Question 70

Why do sociologists focus on pupils identities?

Answer 70

sociologists are interested in how pupil’s class identities that are formed outside of the school interact with the school and its values to produce educational success and failure. This leads to sociologists such as Archer focusing on the interaction between working class pupils identities and school and how this produces underachievement.

Question 71

Describe Bourdieu’s concept of habitus

Answer 71

Habitus refers to the dispositions or learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shaped by a particular social class. It includes lifestyle, and consumption preferences, outlook on life and expectations about what is normal or realistic for ‘people like us’. A group habitus is formed as a response to its position in the class structure. The middle class have the power to define their habitus as superior and impose it on the education system and therefore pupils have been socialised at home into middle class tastes and preferences gain ‘symbolic capital’ status and recognition from the school and are deemed to have worth and value

Question 72

What is symbolic violence

Answer 72

Bourdieu calls the withholding of symbolic capital ‘symbolic violence’

Question 73

Explain Archer’s ideas about symbolic violence and working class students in relation to social class educational differences

Answer 73

Archer found that working class pupils felt that to be educationally successful, they would have to change how they talked and presented themselves. Thus, for working class students, educational success is often experienced as a process of ‘losing yourself’. They felt unable to access ‘posh’, middle class spaces such as university or professional careers, which were seen as ‘not for the likes of us. This leads to many working class pupils feeling conscious of society and the school that looked down upon them. This symbolic violence led to them creating alternative ways of creating self-worth, status and value. They did so by constructing meaningful class identities for themselves by investing heavily in ‘styles’, especially through consuming branded clothing such as Nike. Style performances were heavily policed by peer groups and not conforming was ‘social suicide’ whereas the right appearance -although conflicting with the dress code earned symbolic capital

Question 74

summarise Archer’s arguments on middle class habitus on ‘nike identities’

Answer 74

Archer argues that the school’s middle class habitus leads teacher’s interpreting the ‘street’ style of working-class pupils as evidence of bad taste and therefore they stigmatise working class pupil’s identities. She concluded that working class pupils investment in ‘nike identities’ is not only a cause of their educational marginalisation by the school; it also expresses their positive preference for a particular lifestyle. As a result. working class pupils may choose self-elimination or self-exclusion from education. This gives the message to working class students that education is not for the likes for them leading to them actively choosing to reject it because it does not fit in with their identity or way of life

Question 75

What does Archer’s study suggest about working class identity and educational achievement and failure. Is her study completely accurate to all working class pupils?

Answer 75

Archer’s study largely addresses working class identity and educational failure. However, many working class pupils succeed and go to university. Even here, the clash between working class identity and the habitus of higher education is a barrier for success. Research by Evans found that this is partly due to a process of self-exclusion e.g. not applying to elite universities as they are ‘not for the likes of us’.

Studies also reveal that there is a consistent pattern of the middle class educational system devaluing the experiences and choices of working class pupils as worthless or inappropriate. As a result, working class pupils are often forced to choose between maintaining their working class identities or abandoning them and conforming to the middle class habitus of education in order to succeed

Question 76

Describe the gender gap in educational achievement

Answer 76

Untill the early 1980s, boys significantly outperformed girls in all levels of education. This suggests the idea that gender still has an impact on educational achievement today, but the trend has become reversed as it is girls who now outperform boys.

Examples of girls outperforming boys:

• starting school: a national survey of 6,953 children found that girls scored higher in all tests, 62% of girls could concentrate without supervision for 10 minutes compared to 49% of boys, 56% of girls could write their own name and spell it correctly compared to 42% of boys. Additionally, teacher assessments of pupils in 2013 showed that at the end of year 1 girls were ahead of boys by 7-17% of points in all seven areas of assessed learning
• Key stage 1 to 3: girls do consistently better than boys especially in english where the gender gap widens with age. The gap is narrower in maths and science but girls still do better

GCSE: There is gap of 8.8% in gender between the percentage of pupils achieving five or more GCSE’s A-C in 2014, with 73.1% for girls and 64.3% for boys. Also despite the introduction of three new linear qualifications (and the downgrading of coursework) in 2017, girls still widened their gcse lead over boys A to C grades with 9.5% difference.

• As and A level and vocational courses: girls are more likely to pass and get higher grades, although the gender gap is narrower than at gcse. In 2013, 46.8% of girls gained A or B grades at A-level but only 42.2% of boys. Also at both AS and Alevel girls are more likely to gain grades A-C even in so called ‘boys’ subjects such as Maths and Physics.
• Higher education: males outnumbered females by 2:1 in 1970/1, whereas 57% of first degree graduates from Uk universities in 2020 were women

Question 77

State explanations for the gender gap in education (external factors)

Answer 77

• The impact of feminism
• Changes in employment
• Changing ambitions
• Changes in the family

Question 78

Explain the impact of feminism as an external factor

Answer 78

IMPACT OF FEMINISM -
Feminism has provided more equal rights for females, it had helped bring about legal changes and has promoted equal opportunities in society. As a result, it has helped to raise girls expectations and ambitions. Feminism has encouraged girls to rethink their self-image and to become more aspirational rather than only seeing their future in the stereotypical traditional way as wife/mother

Question 79

explain changes in employment as an external factor

Answer 79

CHANGES IN EMPLOYMENT -
As a consequence of changes in legislation (Equal Pay act 1970) and the Sex discrimination act 1975 and changes in social attitudes as result of secularisation has led to females seeing their future in terms of paid work rather than in gender stereotypical ways. They understand the necessity of qualifications. Their ambitions reflect results of greater and more equal career opportunities. Girls have benefitted from being exposed to more successful career women who act as a positive role model

Question 80

Explain changes in ambitions as an external factor

Answer 80

CHANGING AMBITIONS -
Sue Sharpe (1974) conducted research with a sample of WC girls in a London comprehensive school. They viewed educational success as unfeminine and had low expectations, marriage was their goal. She repeated her research in 1994 with a similar sample and found that there was a great change in priorities as they found girls were far more aspirational. Her findings show a major change in the way girls see themselves and their future. 

Research by Francis found that increasingly today girls are rejecting the traditional female role and understanding the importance of education. Fuller found that educational success was a central aspect of a girls identity, they saw themselves as a creators of their own future and hold an individualised notion of self and aimed for a professional career that would enable them to support themselves.

Question 81

Explain changes in the family as an external factor

Answer 81

CHANGES IN THE FAMILY -
an increase in divorce, cohabitation, SPFS, smaller families and a decrease in marriages have impacted on girls attitude towards education. They recognise that they need to take on more of a breadwinner role and this may encourage girls to look to themselves and their own qualifications to make a living and be financially independent.

Question 82

State internal factors the gender gap

Answer 82

• equal opportunities policies
• positive role models in schools
• gcse and coursework
• teacher attention
• challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
• selection and league tables

Question 83

Explain the internal factor of equal opportunities policies

Answer 83

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES POLICIES -
Many sociologists argue that feminist ideas have had a major impact on the education system. Those who run the system are much more aware of the gender issues and teachers are more sensitive to the need to avoid gender stereotyping. The belief that boys and girls are equally capable and entitled to the same opportunities is now part of mainstream thinking in education and influences educational policies. For example, policies such as GIST (Girls into science and Technology) and WISE (Women into Science and engineering) encouraging girls to pursue careers in non-traditional areas and the introduction of the national curriculum made girls and boys study mostly the same subjects, which was often not the case previously

Question 84

Explain the internal factor of positive role models in schools

Answer 84

POSITIVE ROLE MODEL IN SCHOOLS -
There has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers and head teachers. These qualified women in professional positions may act as role models for girls. It could be argued that primary schools in particular have become ‘feminised’ with a virtually all-female staff and this could influence pupils into seeing schooling as a ‘female’ activity

Question 85

Explain the internal factor of GCSE and coursework

Answer 85

GCSE AND COURSEWORK -
some sociologists argue that changes in the way pupils are assessed have favoured girls and disadvantaged boys. Gonard observed that the gender gap was pretty constant from 1975 until 1988-9 when it increased sharply. This was the year that GCSES were introduced bringing them coursework as a major part of most subjects. He believes that this change in assessment is the main reason for the gender gap in achievement. Mitsos and Brown support this view which led to them concluding that girls are more successful at coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised: spending more time on it, taking more care in presentation and are better at meeting coursework deadlines. However, elwood argues that although coursework has some influence, exams have more influence on final grades and girls also do better in exams than boys

Question 86

Explain the internal factor of Teacher attention

Answer 86

TEACHER ATTENTION -
Research shows that the way teachers interact with girls and boys differs as Spender found that teachers spend more time with boys and that they are able to demand more of the teacher's time and gain more attention. However, French and French argue that the amount of attention given to girls and boys is quite similar and on occasions where boys are given more attention it is usually because they attract more reprimands. Similarly, swann and Graddol found that boys are generally more boisterous and attract the teacher's gaze more than girls, resulting in them gaining more attention and opportunities to speak in class. They found that boys dominated the whole-class discussion, whereas girls preferred pair and group work and were better at listening and cooperating. In the main, they found that the way teachers interacted with girls was more positive and focused around schoolwork rather than behaviour in boys which attract negative attention from teachers. This could lead to a positive self-fulfilling prophecy with girls and a negative one in boys

Question 87

Explain the internal factor of challenging stereotypes in the curriculum

Answer 87

CHALLENGING STEREOTYPES IN THE CURRICULUM -
many sociologists point to the removal of gender stereotypes and sexist images from textbooks, reading schemes and other learning materials as a factor which has removed a barrier to girl’s achievement

Question 88

Explain the internal factor of Selection and league tables

Answer 88

SELECTION AND LEAGUE TABLES -
Marketisation has created a more competitive climate where schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results. Jackson believes that high achieving girls are attractive to schools as they can boost a school’s league table position, whereas low achieving boys are not. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy because if girls are more likely to be recruited to good schools, they have greater likelihood of doing well. Slee notes that boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behavioural problems and are four times more likely to be excluded. As a result, they are more likely to be perceived as a ‘liability’

Question 89

Explain the theory of symbolic capital in relation to social class differences in girl’s achievement

Answer 89

According to feminists, such as Archer et al one reason for social class differences in girl’s achievement is the conflict between working class girls feminine identities and the values and ethos of the school. In her study of working class girls, she used the concept of symbolic capital to understand this conflict. Symbolic capital refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others. Archer found that by performing their working-class feminine identities, the girls gained symbolic capital from their peers. However, this brought them into conflict with school, preventing them from acquiring educational capital and economic capital.

Question 90

What are the four things Archer identifies that girls followed so they can create a valued sense of self?

Answer 90

• adopting a hyper-heterosexual feminine identities
• boyfriends
• being ‘loud’
• working class girls dilemma

Question 91

Explain hyper heterosexual feminine identities

Answer 91

HYPER HETEROSEXUAL FEMININE IDENTITIES -
This refers to when many working class girls investing considerable time, money and effort in constructing 'desirable' and 'glamourous' hyper-heterosexual feminine identities to achieve status and symbolic capital from their female peer groups and avoid them from being ridiculed or called a 'tramp'. However, it also brought them into conflict with school and teacher's saw the girls preoccupation with appearance as a distraction that prevented them from engaging with education. This led to the school 'othering' the girls - defining them as a 'not one of us', incapable of educational success and thus less worthy of respect. Bourdieu describes this process as a symbolic violence: the harm done by denying someone symbolic capital such as by defining their culture as worthless. According to Archer, from the school's point of view, the 'ideal female pupil' identity is a de-sexualised and middle class one that excludes many working class girls

Question 92

Explain boyfriends in relation to girls following strategies to create a valued sense of self

Answer 92

BOYFRIENDS - 
while having a boyfriend brought symbolic capital, it got in the way of schoolwork and lowered girls aspiration. This included losing interest in going to university, in studying 'masculine' subjects or gaining a professional career. Instead, these girls aspired to 'settle down', have children and work locally in working class feminine jobs such as childcare

Question 93

explain ‘being loud’

Answer 93

BEING 'LOUD' - 
some working class girls adopted 'loud' feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken, independent and assertive. For example, questioning teachers authority. This failure to conform to the schools stereotype of the ideal female pupil identity as passive and submissive to authority and brought conflict with teachers, who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive

Question 94

explain the working class girl dilemma

Answer 94

WORKING CLASS GIRLS' DILEMMA -
Archer argues these strategies result in working class having a dilemma: their feminine identities and educational success conflict with one another and the former leads to underachievement in the latter. They are therefore faced with a dilemma of either gaining symbolic capital from their peers by conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity or gaining educational capital by rejecting this. Some girls tried to resolve this dilemma by defining themselves as 'good underneath' reflecting their struggle to achieve a sense of self worth within an education system that devalues them.

While some working class go on to higher education research by evans on 21 working-class sixth form girls in a south london comprehensive school found that even they may be disadvantaged by their gender and class identities. She found that girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power to help their families rather than themselves. This ‘caring’ aspect of working class feminine identity produced a desire to live at home with their families while studying. Economic necessity was a further reason for living at home and studying at a local university. However, although living at home made university more affordable, it also limited their choice of university and the market value of their degree and self-exclusion from elite universities. Archer argues that a preference for the local is a key feature of working class habitus and may place a limit on their success

Question 95

define educational triage

Answer 95

the process whereby schools sort pupils into ‘hopeless’ cases’, ‘those who will pass anyway’ and ‘those with potential to pass’, and then concentrate their efforts on the last of these groups as a way to boost the schools exam league table position sorting may be based on stereotypical ideas about pupils ability

Question 96

define A* to c economy

Answer 96

a system in which schools concentrate their efforts on those pupils they see as most likely to gain five A*-C grades at GCSE and so boost the schools league table position

Question 97

define anti school subculture

Answer 97

The anti-school subculture, (sometimes called the counter school culture), consist of groups of students who rebel against the school for various reasons, and develop and alternative set of delinquent values, attitudes and behaviours in opposition to the academic aims, ethos and rules of a school.

Question 98

define pro school subculture

Answer 98

Pro-school subcultures are those which accept the values and ethos of the school and willingly conform to its rules. They tend to be those students in higher sets who aspire to high academic achievement and are prepared to work hard, and work ‘with the teachers’ to achieve these goals.

Question 99

define habitus

Answer 99

a concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the learned, taken-for granted ways of thinking, acting and being shared by a particular social class or group. It includes preferences for particular lifestyles and consumption patterns and beliefs about what is realistic for members of that group to aim for

Question 100

define symbolic capital

Answer 100

a concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth we are able to obtain from others, especially those of a similar class position to us. Archer et al found that working class girls gained symbolic capital from their peers by performing a hyper-heterosexual feminine, ‘Nike identity’ but that this brought conflict with the school’s middle class ethos

Question 101

define symbolic violence

Answer 101

a concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the harm done by denying someone symbolic capital (status and value) e.g, defining their culture as a worthless. Archer et al found that schools devalue working-class pupils style preferences at tasteless

Question 102

State the external factors of boys and achievement

Answer 102

• Boys and literacy
• Socialisation
• Globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs

Question 103

Explain the external factor of boys and literacy in relation to boys educational achievement

Answer 103

Boys and Literacy - according to DCSF the gender gap is mainly the result of boys poorer literacy and language skills which is likely to affect boys performance across a wide range of subjects. One reason for this may reflect the reality that parents spend less time reading to their sons. Another could be that because it is mothers who do most of the reading, it is therefore viewed as feminine activity

Question 104

Explain the external factor of socialisation in relation to boys educational achievement

Answer 104

Socialisation - Edwards and David argue that boys mature more slowly than girls because primary socialisation encourages boys to be more boisterous and attention-seeking. This may lead to a lack of concentration in class. Burns and Bracey found that the socialisation of boys may lead to over-confidence. Boys are then often surprised when they fail exams and tend to put their failure down to bad luck, not lack of effort

Question 105

Explain the external factor of globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs in relation to boys educational achievement

Answer 105

Globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs - since the 1980s, there has been a significant decline in heavy industries, engineering and manufacturing partly as a consequence of the globalisation of the economy, which has led to manufacturing relocating to developing countries to advantage of cheap labour. Traditionally, these sectors of the economy mainly employed males. Mitsos and Browne claim that this decline in traditional working class jobs and decline in male employment opportunities has led to an ‘identity crisis’ for men, where they recognise they are less likely to occupy the traditional breadwinner role. This had a negative impact on boys motivation within schools

Question 106

State the internal factors for boys and achievement

Answer 106

• feminisation of education
• shortage of male primary school teachers
• laddish subcultures

Question 107

Explain the internal factor of feminisation of education

Answer 107

Sewell argues that education has become ‘feminised’ - schools do not nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership and now celebrate qualities more closely associated with girls, such as methodical working and attentiveness in class. This he argues, puts boys off education. Sewell sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences in achievement as boys do less well in coursework-based subjects as they are generally less organised than girls

Question 108

Explain the internal factor of shortage of male primary school teachers

Answer 108

The increasing lack of strong positive male role models both at home and school is said to be the cause of boys underachievement. A yougov poll found that 39% of 8-11 year old boys do not have any lessons with a male teacher. Most boys surveyed said the presence of a male teacher made them behave better and 42% said it made them work harder. This feminisation of primary schools is understood to place boys at a disadvantage. However, research conducted by Francis and Read challenges the claim that culture of primary schools are feminised and that only male teachers can exert the firm discipline that boys need to achieve. Frances found that two-thirds 7-8 year olds did not think that the gender of their teacher was relevant. Contrastingly, Haase claims that is better to think of primary schools as masculinised educational structures that are numerically dominated by women

Question 109

Explain the internal factor of ‘laddish culture’

Answer 109

The growth of laddish subcultures is believed to have contributed to boys’ underachievement. Epstein examined the ways in which masculinity is constructed within school. working class boys are more likely to be harassed and labelled and subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they appear as ‘swots’. This supports francis finding that boys viewed as being called ‘swot’ as a threat to their masculinity. She argues that laddish culture is becoming increasingly widespread - as girls moved into traditional masculine careers, many become increasingly ‘laddish’ in their effort to construct themselves as non-feminine, and as a result of negative teacher labelling