theories of religion Flashcards
What are substantive definitions of religion?
- those that focus on the content or substance of religious belief
- Weber defines religion as belief in a supernatural power
- exclusive definitions which draw a clear line between religious and non religious beliefs
x this definition leaves no room for beliefs that don’t involve belief in God
x western bias
What are functional definitions of religion?
- those which focus on the social or psychological functions of religion
- Durkheim defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration
+ inclusive of a wide range of beliefs
+ no western bias as it doesn’t specify belief in God
x just because an institution integrates people doesn’t mean it’s a religion
What are constructionist definitions of religion?
- those which focus on how members of society define religion
- it’s not possible to produce a universal definition of religion to cover all cases since everyone defines religion differently
- Aldridge: followers of Scientology believe it’s a religion but the government has denied it legal status as one
- this shows that definitions of religion are influenced by those in power
+ this approach allows for meanings people give to religion to be identified
x generalisations about the nature of religion can’t be made
What are Durkheim’s 4 key ideas about religion?
- the sacred are the things which are set apart and forbidden, surrounded by taboos and evoking feelings of awe. The profane are things which have no special significance. When people worship sacred things they worship society itself.
- studied Arunta clans who worshipped a sacred totem and found that the rituals reinforce the group’s solidarity and sense of belonging.
- sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience. Shared religious rituals bind individuals together and religion motivates and strengthens individuals to overcome obstacles.
- religion is the source of our cognitive capacities and is the origin of human thought, reason and science.
What are the criticisms of Durkheim?
x Worsley: there isn’t a sharp division between the sacred and the profane and different clans share the same totems
x Mestrovic: Durkheim’s ideas can’t be applied to contemporary society because diversity has fragmented the collective conscience
Why are the psychological functions of religion according to Malinowski?
- Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable so uncertain. He studied Trobriand islanders and found a difference between lagoon fishing, which uses safe predictable methods, and ocean fishing, which is dangerous and uncertain so requires rituals to ensure success. The rituals reinforce group solidarity and act as a ‘god of the gaps’
- At times of life crises
Events like birth and death cause disruptive changes in social groups but religion helps to minimise the disruption. Malinowski says death is the main reason for the existence of religious beliefs.
What are Parsons’ views on religion?
He says religion
1. Creates and legitimates society’s central values by making them sacred, thus promoting value consensus and social stability
2. Is the primary source of meaning because it answers questions that seem to have no answer. This helps people to adjust to adverse events and maintains stability.
What are Bellah’s ideas about civil religion?
- civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society
- it involves loyalty to the nation state and a belief in God is expressed though rituals such as singing the national anthem
- it involved belief in an ‘American god’ rather than a Jewish, Protestant or Catholic god and so it binds together Americans from all backgrounds
What does Bellah say about functional alternatives?
Bellah says that although civil religion involves a belief in God, it doesn’t have to be the case and some other belief system could perform the same functions but have non religious beliefs.
Evaluate the functionalist beliefs of religion
x it neglects negative aspects like religion as a source of oppression of the poor or women
x it ignores religion as a source of division and conflict
x civil religion may not actually be a religion because it doesn’t involve belief in the supernatural
What are the Marxist ideas about religion as an ideology?
- Marx says religion acts as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor as inevitable and god-given
- the poor are misled into believing that their suffering is virtuous and will be rewarded in the afterlife, which creates a false consciousness
- Levin: religion is a spiritual gin doled out to the masses by the ruling class to prevent them from trying to overthrow the capitalist class
What are the Marxist ideas about religion and alienation?
- under capitalism, workers are alienated because they become separated from what they have produced
- religion acts as an opiate to full the pain of exploitation; Marx says religion is the opium of the people
- religions’ promises of an afterlife create an illusory happiness to distract attention from capitalism
Evaluate the Marxist theories of religion
- neo-Marxists say that there are forms of religion which assist rather than hinder the development of class consciousness
- Althusser: alienation is an unscientific concept based on a romantic idea that humans have a true self
- Hill and Turner: although Christianity was a big part of ruling class ideology, it had a limited impact on the peasantry, therefore religion doesn’t necessarily function as an ideology to control the population
What do feminists present as evidence of patriarchy in religion?
- religious organisations are mainly male dominated. Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests. Armstrong: this exclusion is evidence of women’s marginalisation
- places of worship marginalise women, restrict their participation and have taboos regarding menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth eg in Islam, menstruating women can’t touch the Quran. Holm describes this as the devaluation of women in religion
- sacred texts feature the doings of male gods and are usually written by men with stories reflecting anti-female stereotypes
- religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men and legitimate women’s traditional domestic role. Woodhead says this is evidence of the church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women.
What are feminist critiques regarding the evidence of patriarchy in religion?
- Armstrong: women haven’t always been subordinate to men within religion. 6000 years ago, religions places women at the center eg Mother Nature
- Sadaawi: religion isn’t the direct cause of women’s subordination but it’s the patriarchal forms of society which have developed
- Woodhead criticises feminist explanations that equate religion with patriarchy and argues that there are ways women can use religion to gain freedom and respect eg hijabs as a source of liberation rather than oppression
- Brusco: belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women such as using bible study groups to share and support each other
