Organisations Movements And Members

Question 1

Churches (Troeltsch)

Answer 1

• large organisations with millions of members
• run by a bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests
• claim a monopoly of the truth
• universalistic
• attractive to higher classes because they are ideologically conservative and closely linked to the state

Question 2

Sects (Troeltsch)

Answer 2

• small exclusive groups
• hostile to wider society
• expect a high level of commitment
• draw their members from the poor and oppressed
• led by a charismatic leader rather than a bureaucratic hierarchy
• claim a monopoly of the truth

Question 3

Denominations (Niebuhr)

Answer 3

• membership is less exclusive than a sect but don’t appeal to the whole of society like a church
• like churches they broadly accept society’s values but aren’t linked to the state
• impose minor restrictions on members eg forbidding alcohol but aren’t as demanding as sects
• tolerant of other religious organisations and don’t claim a religious monopoly of the truth

Question 4

Cult (Niebuhr)

Answer 4

• individualistic, loose knit small group around shared themes and interests but usually without a sharply defined and exclusive belief system
• led by practitioners or therapists who claim special knowledge
• tolerant of other organisations and their beliefs
• don’t demand strong commitment from followers who are more like customers or trainees than members
• world affirming, claiming to improve life in this world

Question 5

Similarities and differences between religious organisations - Wallis

Answer 5

1. How they see themselves
   While churches and sects claim a religious monopoly of the truth, denominations and cults accept that there can be many valid interpretations
2. How they are seen by wider society
   Churches and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate while sects and cults are seen as deviant

Question 6

Bruce’s critique of Troeltsch

Answer 6

Bruce says that his idea of churches having a religious monopoly only applies to the catholic church before the Protestant reformation. Since then, sects and cults have flourished and religious diversity has become the norm. Churches have lost their monopoly and been reduced to the status of denominations competing with all the rest.

Question 7

World rejecting NRMs

Answer 7

• clearly religious organisations with a clear notion of God
• highly critical of the outside world and expect or seek radical change
• to achieve salvation , members must make a sharp break with their former life
• members live communally with restricted contact with the outside world. The movement controls their lives and is accused of brainwashing them
• have conservative moral codes

Question 8

World accommodating NRMs

Answer 8

• breakaways from existing mainstream churches or denominations
• neither accept nor reject the world and focus on religious rather than worldly matters, seeking to restore the spiritual purity of religion
• members lead conventional lives

Question 9

World affirming NRMs

Answer 9

• accept the world as it is. Are optimistic and promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals and values like careers and personal relationships.
• non exclusive and tolerant of other religions but claim to offer additional special knowledge for followers to unlock spiritual powers for success or overcoming problems. Described as psychologising religions which offer this-worldly gratification
• most are cults and followers are customers. Few demands are placed on them and they live normal lives

Question 10

Evaluate Wallis’ classification of the NRMs

Answer 10

• it isn’t clear whether he is categorising them according to the movements teachings or individual members’ beliefs.
• he ignores the diversity of beliefs that may exist within an NRM
• Wallis himself recognises that real NRMs rarely fit into his typology and some may have features of all three types
• Stark and Bainbridge reject the idea of constructing typologies and say we should use one criterion to identify between religious organisations: the degree of conflict between the religious group and wider society.

Question 11

Sects (Stark and Bainbridge)

Answer 11

Sects result from schisms- splits in existing organisation. They break away from churches usually because of disagreements about doctrine. S&B say they promise other-worldly benefits to those suffering economic deprivation or ethical deprivation.

Question 12

Cults (Stark and Bainbridge)

Answer 12

New religions that have been imported eg Scientology. S&B say they offer this-worldly benefits to prosperous individuals who are suffering psychic deprivation (normlessness) and organismic deprivation (health problems)

Question 13

Audience cults (S&B)

Answer 13

The least organised and don’t involve formal membership or much commitment. Little interaction between members. Participation may be through the media. Eg astrology

Question 14

Client cults (S&B)

Answer 14

Based on the relationship between a consultant and a client and provide services to their followers. Emphasis on therapies which promise personal fulfilment and self discovery.

Question 15

Cultic movements (S&B)

Answer 15

Most organised and demand high levels of commitment. Aims to meet its members needs and they are rarely allowed to belong to other religious groups at the same time. Eg moonies

Question 16

Marginality as an explanation for the growth of NRMs

Answer 16

Weber says sects arise in groups who are marginal to society. These groups may feel that they are disprivileged ie not receiving their just economic rewards or social status.
Sects offer a solution to this by offering their members a theodicy of disprivilege ie a religious explanation and justification for their suffering.

Question 17

Relative deprivation as an explanation for the growth of NRMs - Wallis

Answer 17

Relative deprivation is the subjective sense of being deprived compared to others. M/c people who are materially well off may feel spiritually deprived and so turn to sects as Wallis argues

Question 18

Relative deprivation as an explanation for the growth of NRMs - Stark and Bainbridge

Answer 18

The relatively deprived break away from churches to form sects. S&B say
- world rejecting sects offer the deprived the compensators they need for the rewards they are denied in this world
- the privileged don’t need compensators and so are attracted to world accepting churches that express their status and bring them further success in achieving earthly rewards.

Question 19

Social change as an explanation for the growth of NRMs: Wilson and Bruce

Answer 19

• Wilson says social change disrupts the established norms and values, producing anomie/normlessness. In response to the uncertainty and insecurity this creates, those who are most affected turn to sects as a solution
• Bruce sees the growth of sects and cults as a response to social changes involved in modernisation and secularisation. Society is now secular so people don’t want traditional churches and strict sects because they demand too much commitment. So they turn to cults which are less demanding.

Question 20

Explanations for the growth of world rejecting NRMs

Answer 20

Wallis points to social changes:
- increased time spent in education gives young people freedom from adult responsibilities and enabled a counter culture to develop
- the growth of radical political movements offered alternative ideas about the future
World rejecting NRMs were attractive in this context because they offered young people a more idealistic way of life
Bruce says the failure of counter culture to change the world led to disillusioned youth turning to religion instead

Question 21

Explanations for the growth of world affirming NRMs

Answer 21

Bruce says the growth is a response to modernity, especially the rationalisation of work: work no longer provides meaning or a source of identity yet we are still expected to achieve even though we may lack the opportunities to succeed. World affirming NRMs provide both a sense of identity and techniques that promise success in this world.

Question 22

Niebuhr’s ideas on whether sects are short or long lived

Answer 22

He argues that sects are world rejecting organisations that come into existence because of schism. They are short lived and that within a generation they either
- die out
- compromise with the world
- abandon their extreme ideas
- become a denomination

Question 23

What are the three reasons Niebuhr gives for why sects are short lived

Answer 23

• the second generation who are born into the sect lack the commitment of their parents
• the Protestant ethic effect
  Sects that practise asceticism tend to become prosperous and so the members will be tempted to compromise with the world
• death of the leader
  Sects with a charismatic leader either collapse when they die or a bureaucratic leadership takes over , turning it into a denomination

Question 24

The sectarian cycle (S&B)

Answer 24

Stage 1. Schism
Tension between the needs of deprived and privileged members of a church makes deprived members break away and form a world rejecting sect
Stage 2. Initial fervour
Charismatic leadership and tension between the sect’s beliefs and those of wider society
Stage 3. Denominationalism
The Protestant ethic effect and the coolness of the second generation mean the fervour disappears
Stage 4. Establishment
The sect becomes more world accepting and tension with wider society reduced
Stage 5. Schism
Happens when more zealous or less privileged members break away to lead a new sect true to the original message

Question 25

Established sects (Wilson)

Answer 25

Wilson says not all sects follow the sectarian cycle
- conversionist sects like evangelicals whose aim is to convert large numbers of people are likely to grow into larger more formal denominations
- Adventist sects like Jehovah witnesses await the second coming of Christ. To be saved they believe they must separate themselves from the world around them to prevent them from compromising and becoming a denomination

Question 26

The two themes that characterise the new age (Heelas)

Answer 26

• self spirituality
  New agers turn away from the traditional external religions like churches and look inside themselves to find it
• detraditionalisation
  The new age rejects the spiritual authority of external traditional sources like sacred texts and values personal experience and believes we can discover the truth for ourselves within ourselves

Question 27

What does Drane say is the reason for the growth in the new age

Answer 27

Drane says the appeal of the new age is part of a shift towards postmodern society. There is a loss of faith in meta narratives. Science promised progress but instead brought negatives eg war. This made people lose faith in experts and become disillusioned with the churches’ failure to meet their spiritual needs. They turn to new age spirituality as a result.

Question 28

What does Bruce say is the reason for the growth in the new age

Answer 28

Modern society rather than postmodernity. Modern society and new age beliefs both value individualism. New age beliefs are softer versions of more demanding traditional Eastern religions, why is why new age activities are often audience or client cults. The new age eclecticism or ‘pick and mix spiritual shopping’ reflects the consumerism of capitalist society.

Question 29

How are the new age and modernity linked? (Heelas)

Answer 29

• a source of identity
  In modern society people have many roles with little overlap between them which creates a fragmented identity. New age beliefs offer a source of authentic identity
• consumer culture creates dissatisfaction because it never delivers the perfection it promises. The new age offers an alternative way to achieve perfection
• rapid social change in modern society results in anomie. The new age provides a sense of certainty and truth
• modernity leads to secularisation which removes the traditional alternatives to new age beliefs.

Question 30

Stats on gender and religiosity

Answer 30

• most churchgoers are female and they are more likely than men to attend regularly
• more women than men say they have a religion
• more women then men say religion is important to them
• more men than women are atheists or agnostics
• women are more likely than men to practice their religion in all major faiths in the UK
• women express greater interest in and stronger commitment to religion than men

Question 31

Explain risk, socialisation and roles as a reason for gender differences in religiosity

Answer 31

Miller and Hoffman point out 3 reasons for women’s higher levels of religiosity
1. Gender differences in risk taking
Men are less risk averse than women and so are more likely to take the risk of not being religious.
x Davie says that as the dangers associated with childbirth disappear, so do the risks that women face and so they may be less religious as a result
2. Gender differences in socialisation
Women are more religious because they are socialised to be passive, obedient and caring; qualities which religions value.
3. Differences in gender roles
Women are more likely than men to work part time or be full time carers so they have time to participate in religious activities

Question 32

Explain paid work as a reason for gender differences in religiosity

Answer 32

Bruce says that women’s religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work. Rationalisation has turned religion away from the male dominated public sphere and towards the private sphere of the family and personal life where women are more concerned with. As religion becomes privatised, men’s religiosity declines quicker than women’s

x Brown says that many women entered paid work which led to the decline of female piety- women too withdrawing from religion

Question 33

Explain the new age as a reason for the greater appeal of religion to women

Answer 33

• Women are more associated with nature and a healing role so they may be more attracted to new age movements and ideas
• Heelas and Woodhead found that 80% of participants in the holistic milieu were female
• Bruce says women’s experience of child rearing makes them less aggressive and goal oriented and more cooperative and caring, which fits with the new age
• women may also be attracted to the new age because it emphasises being authentic rather than acting out roles eg gender roles- which women like because they perceive their roles as restrictive

Question 34

What is the individual sphere

Answer 34

• Women have a role conflict between their masculinised instrumental role in the public sphere of work and their expressive feminine role in the private sphere of the family.
• Woodhead says that new age beliefs are attractive for these women because they appeal to a third sphere - the individual sphere, which is concerned with individual autonomy and personal growth rather than role performance

Question 35

Class differences in the types of religion that appeal to women

Answer 35

New age beliefs that emphasise personal autonomy, control and self development appeal to m/c women while ideas that give a passive role such as belief in an all powerful God or fatalistic ideas like horoscopes appeal to w/c women.

Question 36

Explain the compensators and sects as a reason for the greater appeal of religion to women

Answer 36

Stark and Bainbridge say that women participate in sects more because they offer compensators for three types of deprivation that are more common among women:
- organismic deprivation stems from physical and mental health problems which women are more likely to suffer from and seek help from sects for
- ethical deprivation where women are more morally conservative and regard the world as being in moral decline which attracts them to sects
- social deprivation where women are more likely to be poor and sects attract poorer groups

Question 37

Explain the pentecostal gender paradox as a reason for the greater appeal of religion to women

Answer 37

• Pentecostalism is a patriarchal form of religion but it is attractive to women. This is what Martin calls the Pentecostal gender paradox.
• Brusco’s study explains that Pentecostalism makes its followers adopt an ascetic lifestyle. Therefore Pentecostal women can use these ideas to combat machismo in Latin America: a culture where men spend 20-40% of the household income on things like drugs and alcohol. Pentecostal men are pressured by their pastors to change their ways and put the income back into the home, which allows Latin women to use Pentecostalism to improve their position

Question 38

Stats on ethnicity and religiosity

Answer 38

• Brierley found that black people are twice as likely to attend church as whites
• Muslims Hindus and black Christians are more likely than white Christian’s to see their religion as important and to attend a place of worship every week
• among Christians, blacks are more likely than whites to be found in Pentecostal churches , where they make up 40% of the membership

x Modood et al found decline in the importance of religion for all ethnic groups and that fewer were observant

Question 39

Explain cultural defence as a reason for ethnic differences in religiosity

Answer 39

• Bird noted that religion among EMs is a basis for community solidarity, a means of preserving one’s culture and language and coping with oppression in a racist society
• Brierley shows a growth of new churches in London catering for specific languages and nationalities as a result of recent immigration.

Question 40

Explain cultural transition as a reason for ethnic differences in religiosity

Answer 40

• Herberg says religion can ease the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups in their new environment. This increases religious participation among 1st gen immigrants in the USA
• Pryce’s study found pentecostalism is a ‘religion of the oppressed’ that provided migrants with values appropriate to the new world in which they found themselves. It helped African Caribbeans to adapt to British society by encouraging self reliance and giving people hope of improving their situation

Question 41

Stats on age and religious participation

Answer 41

• the older a person is the more likely they are to attend religious services
• under 25s are more likely to go to church than those in most of the age groups above them because they have less choice in the matter
• for all age groups apart from 65 and over, there is an ongoing fall in church attendance and the fall is sharpest among the young
• Brierley notes that by 2025, 15-19 year olds will be a mere 2.5% of all churchgoers

Question 42

Reasons for age differences in religiosity

Answer 42

Voas and Crockett propose 3 explanations:
- the ageing effect: people turn to religion as they get older
- the period or cohort effect: people born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of the events they lived through
- secularisation: as religion declines in importance, each generation becomes less religious than the one before it.

Question 43

What is the virtual collapse of religious socialisation

Answer 43

Term coined by Arweck and Beckford to explain that less and less religious socialisation is happening. Voas found that even parents who had the same faith had only a 50% chance of raising their child to be religious, this fell to 25% where the parents are of different faiths. Therefore there is likely to be a steadily aging population of churchgoers.