Religion In A Global Context

Question 1

What are fundamentalists

Answer 1

A religious group who appeal to tradition and look back to a supposed golden age in the past. They seek a return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith. It arises where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society.

Question 2

Characteristics of fundamentalism: authoritative sacred text

Answer 2

Christian fundamentalists believe every word of the bible to be true and are intolerant of all other views, refusing to engage in argument with them
x Aldridge says no text speaks for itself, it has to be interpreted so what fundamentalists see as the truth isn’t the text itself but their interpretation of it

Question 3

Characteristics of fundamentalism: an us and them mentality

Answer 3

Fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with it. Davie says they seek to establish islands of certainty against social and cultural chaos

Question 4

Characteristics of fundamentalism: aggressive reaction

Answer 4

Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention toward the threat to their beliefs and values and their reactions are aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm

Question 5

Characteristics of fundamentalism: use of modern technology

Answer 5

Although fundamentalists oppose modern culture, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their goals

Question 6

Characteristics of fundamentalism: patriarchy

Answer 6

Hawley: fundamentalists favour a world where control over women is fixed for all time by divine decree

Question 7

Characteristics of fundamentalism: prophecy

Answer 7

Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe in the last days, the 7 year rule of the antichrist and the war of Armageddon.

Question 8

Characteristics of fundamentalism: conspiracy theories

Answer 8

Fundamentalists are attracted to conspiracy theories; the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces and organisations are in control of human destiny

Question 9

Davie and Giddens’ views on fundamentalism and modernity

Answer 9

• Davie: fundamentalism occurs where those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it
• Giddens: fundamentalism is a product of and reaction to globalisation which undermines traditional norms. It’s beliefs are attractive because they act as a retreat into faith based answers away from the risks of a globalising world.

Question 10

Cosmopolitanism

Answer 10

Giddens says cosmopolitanism is a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with todays globalising world. It is tolerant of the views of others and open to new ideas. It requires rational justification of views rather than appealing to sacred texts. People’s lifestyles are a personal choice and emphasis is on pursuit of personal meaning and self improvement.

Question 11

Responses to post modernity

Answer 11

• Bauman says fundamentalism is a response to postmodernity
• Castells identifies two types of responses:
  1. Resistance identity: a defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities
  2. Project identity: the response of those who are forward looking and engage with social movements

Question 12

Beckford’s criticisms of Giddens, Bauman and Castells

Answer 12

• they distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism
• they’re too fixated on fund, ignoring other important developments
• Giddens lumps all types of fund together, ignoring important differences between them
• Giddens’ description of fund as a defensive reaction to modernity ignored the fact that reinventing tradition is a modern reflexive activity

Question 13

What does Bruce say caused fundamentalism

Answer 13

The main cause of fund is the perception of religious traditionalists that todays globalising world threatens their beliefs. However he regards it as being confined to monotheistic religions which are based on a notion of God’s will as revealed through a sacred text.

Question 14

Bruce: two fundamentalisms

Answer 14

1. In the west, fundamentalism is a reaction to change taking place within a society
2. In the third world, fundamentalism is a reaction to changes being thrust upon a society from outside

Question 15

Davie: two phases of modernity

Answer 15

1. The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism. Enlightenment philosophy believes that science and human reason had the power to improve the world. This project secularised all areas of life, attacking religious certainties and leading to religious fundamentalism as a reaction to it.
2. The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism. The enlightenment has come under attack due to pessimism and uncertainty resulting from insecurity caused by globalisation, concerns about the environment and the collapse of communism. These led to a loss of faith in enlightenment ideologies.

Question 16

Hervieu-Leger’s views on fundamentalism

Answer 16

HL sees it as a form of recreated minorities in late modern societies that have suffered cultural amnesia and forgotten their historic religious traditions

Question 17

The clash of civilisations

Answer 17

• Huntington says religion has been at the center of global conflicts and these have intensified since the collapse of communism. He says it is a symptom of a clash of civilisations.
• Globalisation has made nation states a less significant source of identity, creating a gap that religion has filled. Glob also increases contact between civilisations which increases the likelihood of conflict.
• Huntington says religious differences create hostile us and them relationships which compete for economic and military power. He says the west are under threat, esp from Islam, and urges them to reassert their identity as a lib-dem Christian civilisation

Question 18

Criticisms of Huntington

Answer 18

• Jackson sees his work as an example of orientalism; a western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations negatively and justified exploitation and the abuse of human rights
• Casanova argues that he ignored important religious divisions within the civilisations he identifies
• Horrie and Chippindale see the clash of civilisations as a misleading neo-cons ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy
• Armstrong: hostility towards the west doesn’t stem from fundamentalist Islam but is a reaction to western foreign policy in the Middle East.

Question 19

How does religion serve as a cultural defence

Answer 19

Bruce: religion serves to unite a community against an external threat and symbolises the group’s collective identity.

Question 20

Cultural defence: Poland

Answer 20

Poland was under communist rule by the Soviet Union but it still embodied polish national identity. The church was a rallying point for opposition to the SU and the polish communist party. It lent its support to the solidarity free trade union movement which contributed to the fall of communism. The church has since had influence on polish politics.

Question 21

Cultural defence: Iran

Answer 21

The Shah of Iran headed an illegal overthrow of a democratic government to install a pro western regime. Modernisation widened the gap between the rich and poor and protest was suppressed. Islam became the focus for resistance to the regime which led to the creation of the Islamic republic where clerics held state power.

x Haynes: the Iranian revolution wasn’t typical of the Middle East in that it was led by religious leaders. They are opposed by local fundamentalists and regarded as enemies of Islam.

Question 22

Hinduism and consumerism

Answer 22

• globalisation has created a huge, prosperous, scientifically educated urban m/c in india
• Nanda says most of them continue to believe in the supernatural because of their ambivalence about their new found wealth
• there is a tension between the Hindu belief about renouncing materialism and the new prosperity of the middle classes. This is resolved by turning to holy men who teach them that desire isn’t bad it’s just a manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things
• modern Hinduism legitimstes the position of the m/c and allows them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.

Question 23

Hindu ultra nationalism

Answer 23

• Nanda notes that India’s success in the global market is due to the superiority of Hindu values
• in the Hindu ultra Nat, the worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping India itself and so Hinduism has become a civil religion
• Hinduism has also penetrated public life so that the supposedly secular state is increasingly influenced by religion.

Question 24

Capitalism in east Asia

Answer 24

• East Asian tiger economies like SK, Singapore and Taiwan have industrialised and become players in the global economy
• the success of capitalism in east Asia has led sociologists to argue that religion has played a role similar to the one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism
• Redding’s sees the post Confucian values of Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economies as encouraging hard work, self discipline, frugality, commitment to education and self improvement. The effect of this value system is similar to the Protestant ethic in that it leads to economic productivity and accumulation of capital

Question 25

Pentecostalism in Latin America: Berger

Answer 25

• Berger says it acts as a functional equivalent to weber’s Protestant ethic. They embrace a work ethic and lifestyle similar to the calvinists in that they have an ascetic lifestyle and their members are encouraged to prosper
• Berger agrees with Weber that an ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote economic development but religious ideas aren’t enough, natural resources are also needed

Question 26

The two phases in the expansion of Christianity according to Lehmann

Answer 26

1. Christianity accompanied colonisation and was imposed on indigenous populations, suppressing local religions
2. It spread due to gaining a popular following

Question 27

Why does Lehmann say Pentecostalism is successful locally

Answer 27

Because it incorporates local beliefs and claims to give believers access to the power of the Holy Spirit. This creates new local religious forms rather than just replacing existing local beliefs with an imported one.

Question 28

Why does Lehmann say Pentecostalism is successful globally

Answer 28

Because it is able to appeal to the poor and it uses global media to spread its message.