Theories of Mind 1: Substance Dualism

Question 1

What is a substance?

Answer 1

Something not predicated of anything else, which has its own particular identity

Question 2

What is substance dualism?

Answer 2

The belief that the mind and the body are two separate substances

Question 3

The Allegory of the Cave

Answer 3

From Plato’s Republic. Plato argued that there are a number of illusory worlds before we get to the ‘real’ one. (e.g. inside/outside/shadows). It is a logical consequence of Plato’s idealism that the physical world, including our own bodies, is not truly real. Therefore I cannot possibly claim that my body is part of my personal identity

Question 4

Chariot Analogy

Answer 4

The self is the driver of the chariot, which is pulled by three horses: desire, instinct and reason. Desire will always be trying to pull away and must be kept in check by the other two (parts of the soul). Plato conveys the idea that the self both depends on and controls the soul; however, the body does not play any role in this image except as a hindrance.

Question 5

Man called Er

Answer 5

Plato tells a story of a man called Er who goes through the process of reincarnation. Some form of belief in life after death, in this case the idea of transmigration of souls, is usually associated with dualism, because if the soul rather than the body is me, there is no reason for me to die when my body dies. Indeed, bodies are mere shells for souls, interchangeable between people. Plato thought people might be punished by being reincarnated as something lower.

Question 6

Neoplatonism and Christianity

Answer 6

Early Christianity was influenced by Neoplatonism and they adopted the idea of Immortality of the soul. This is backed by evidence from the New Testament. Christians did not go as far as Plato and didn’t think the body was merely a shell for the soul as this would be insulting God.

Question 7

Cartesian Dualism

Answer 7

René Descartes moved from France to Amsterdam. Here he wrote ‘Meditations” after overlooking a crowded street where many men were wearing large hats. He suggested, for all he could see that they could be automatons. He proposed universal doubt: what if every experience received from the senses is really being manipulated by an evil demon? It is very difficult to prove this is not the case- as any sensory information would be manipulated. The demon cannot, however, manipulate thoughts about the process of thinking. “I am a thinking being” is self-verifying as you need to be thinking in order to think it. Sentience cannot be an illusion- “I think, therefore I am” (Descartes’ Cogito) . My certain of my own existence is based on the fact that I know I am thinking, and I cannot be wrong about this because I must be able to think it to know it. He cannot be certain about the existence of anything else, however, including his own body. The process of thinking cannot be produced by my physical body, because thinking cannot give me certainty of the existence of my physical body. He therefore proposed that the should does the thinking. The relationship between the should and body is simply accidental (could be paired with another). Descartes concluded it is unreasonable to doubt the existence of the external world.

Question 8

Leibniz’ Mill

Answer 8

Leibniz observed the construction of windmills in Holland. They were incredibly complex machines. Leibniz noted that although they were complex, nobody would think they would be capable of thought. Therefore he concluded it must be simplicity rather than complexity that produces thought. No complex thing could produce thought.

Question 9

Decline of Dualism

Answer 9

19th Century. Religious belief was in decline and therefore people no longer felt compelled to accept the existence of an immaterial soul.
Darwin’s theory of evolution lead people to question how the soul could evolve.
Finally if Science could explain more and more, eventually it would also be able to explain the mind as well.

Question 10

Leibniz’ mill counter argument

Answer 10

Charles Babbage constructed the Difference Engine (complex calculator) and Ada Lovelace developed the first computer programs for it. Alan Turing created the first true computer at Bletchley park. He suggested that in the future a computer could convince a human that it was another human being (the Turing Test). Artificial intelligence (computer could become conscious or sentient) has been speculated over (robots?)
Leibniz’ argument is therefore outdated as computers are becoming more complex and closer resembling thinking.