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Global Development > Theories of Development > Flashcards

Theories of Development Flashcards

1
Q

What big metanarrative is modernisation theory influenced by?

A

FUNCTIONALISM

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2
Q

When did Modernisation theory come about?

A
  • Cold War period - early 1960s

* 1947 Marshall Plan an active example of Modernisation Theory (lift the rest of the world out of poverty)

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3
Q

What does Modernisation theory argue?

A
  • The theory explains how poorer countries could achieve development through economic growth & how Communism could not be the way to achieve development (CONTEXT - Cold War)
  • ROSTOW subtitled his most popular work ‘an anti-communist manifesto’, describing communism as a disease that can stop modernisation.
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4
Q

What criticisms does modernisation theory face?

A
  • It’s essentially an ethnocentric approach (only route to development is following the footsteps of the West)
  • Sucess is based on mass consumption (like the US)
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5
Q

Explain Parson’s ‘evolutionary principles’

A
  • For Parsons, the biggest difference = trad societies are more based on ascribed status & modern societies were individualistic/based on achieved status
  • Parsons argues that society passes through evolutionary stages, marked by ‘evolutionary universals’ e.g the decline of trad kinship patterns (extended family –> nuclear family) and the emergence of stratification
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6
Q

How is Parson’s criticised?

A
  • the difference in societies Parson’s draws on are questionable
  • some of the supposed characteristics of trad society survive even in the most developed societies & some supposed characteristics of modern society can be found in less developed societies
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7
Q

What prevents development?

according to modernisation theorists

A

Obstacles to development are internal…

  • having trad values/attitudes
  • a lack of necessary modern values (differed gratification/the need for achievement)
  • a lack of necessary institutions/organisations for economic growth (banks, lacking capital)
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8
Q

What is a major difference within modernisation theory?

A

Some key thinkers (Rostow) emphasise economic modernisation whereas, other key thinkers (Hoselitz) emphasise social obstacles

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9
Q

What are the five stages of Rostow’s staircase model?

A
  1. Traditional Society (subsistence, values limiting society)
  2. Pre-Conditions for Take Off (Western values take hold)
  3. Take Off (Industrial rev. and cultural change)
  4. Drive to Maturity (new ideas/improved tech, growth)
  5. High Mass Consumption (welfare system, disposable $)
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10
Q

What did Hoselitz argue?

A
  • applied a functionalist model of change to developing countries
  • argued they needed to modernise socially & culturally & economically
  • Obstacles are social systems that limit social mobility & force people to accept new patterns of work
  • main assets of modern society = educational opportunity, individual freedom & the rule of law
  • argued that cities could act as centres of Western values & spread them to encourage modernisation
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11
Q

Explain modernisation theory today

A
  • tends to be dismissed as irrelevant today
  • laid foundations that prove durable (communism failed and capitalism achieving economic growth)
  • rich countries continue to use development aid to help poorer countries to develop
  • Rostow saw India & Chine as at the ‘take off’ stage (1950s), today they are nearly at ‘drive to maturity’ - an estimate of 60 yrs between these stages is accurate.
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12
Q

What metanarrative influences Dependency Theory?

A

NEO-MARXISM

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13
Q

When did DT emerge?

A
  • 1970s - a response to modernisation theory

* Radical theories were strong in West & Third world due to activism sparked by the Vietnam War

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14
Q

According to DTs, what prevents development?

A
  • obstacles to development are external
  • developing countries have been forced into subordination (colonialism & neo-colonialism)
  • claim political independence is not enough to escape dependency - they need to break away from the global capitalism
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15
Q

What is neo-colonialism?

A

The continuation of past economic dominance by former colonial powers over ex-colonies

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16
Q

What are the key points of DT?

A
  • Rejects Modernisation Theory (external, not internal)
  • Anti-Capitalist (global capitalism is a world exploitative system)
  • The global situation today is seen as a DIRECT RESULT of historical capitalism, world trade & colonialism
  • Developed capitalist countries benefit from cheap access to raw materials & markets for manufactured goods
  • The theory emphasises third world countries nationalism & national unity & self-reliance NOT aid from West for development
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17
Q

How is underdevelopment seen by DT?

A
  • Developed countries have made the poorer countries poor & it’s in their interest to keep them poor (Chang, 2003, ‘Kicking the ladder away’)
  • Happens through a chain of relationships between the METROPOLIS & the SATELLITE states
  • Chain of dependency = the development of the Metropole causes underdevelopment of the satellite
  • the Metropole ‘buys off’ the comprador bourgeoisie allowing exploitation of people in poor countries & preventing change that would benefit the majority
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18
Q

Define the term ‘Comprador Bourgeoisie’

A

the groups of elites/leaders in poor countries

the people modernisation theorist would expect to lead development

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19
Q

What does Frank argue?

A
  • Rich Western countries were never dominated & exploited, poor Eastern countries were and therefore are underdeveloped - so cannot follow the footsteps of the West
  • DTs argue that non-Western societies were often wealthy & economically complex when the West first met them (e.g Ming Dynasty, China)
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20
Q

What are the three stages of development according to DTs?

A

STAGE 1: Mercantile Capitalism
(merchants travelling the world to collect goods to trade in Europe)

STAGE 2: Colonialism
(direct political control over countries)

STAGE 3: Neo-Colonialism
(economic control over ex-colonies keeping them dependent)

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21
Q

Why are developing countries in a different position to rich countries when they were developing, according to DTs?

A
  • They’re locked into a one-sided relationship e.g exporting cash crops
  • They have inherited inappropriate political, educational and healthcare systems from colonisers
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22
Q

In which way does neo-colonialism work to prevent development today?

A
  • tried aid & aid with conditions attached
  • Political alliances through which the developed dominate the developing
  • TNCs
  • Terms of trade
  • Global Finance (IMF, World Bank) & Debt
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23
Q

How can underdeveloped countries develop?

According to DTs

A

DTs see underdevelopment as permanent & the only way out is to escape the capitalist system and the ‘master-servant’ relationship:

  1. Development needs to be state-led (external powers are the oppressors)
  2. Isolation - an attempt to be self-reliant and have little contact with the rest of the world (e.g China)
  3. Breaking away at a time when the colonial powers are weak (during war or recession)
  4. ‘associate development’ - some ‘limited’ development could occur when locked into capitalism but this has bad consequences
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24
Q

What are some negatives of DT?

A
  • it provided little guidance on how Third World countries should develop
  • pessimist view, any development will be limited
  • Its more of an analysis of some obstacles to development than a guide to action
  • Communist countries today have opened up free markets to generate wealth (China)
25
Q

What metanarrative is World Systems Theory influenced by?

A

TRADITIONAL MARXISM

26
Q

How is World Systems Theory different to DT?

A
  • DT focuses on the experience & prospects of individual countries
  • WST describes the world as consisting of a single unified capitalist system (The Modern World System)
27
Q

What is the hierarchy of countries of the Modern World System according to WSTs?

A
  1. CORE –> developed countries
  2. SEMI-PERIPHERY –> some advanced urban centres
  3. PERIPHERY –> the least developed
28
Q

When and why did the Modern World System come into existence?

A
  • Emerged when European trade expanded (late 15th C/early 16th C)
  • Because it was on a global scale it was a new kind of social system the world had not experienced before
29
Q

WSTs agree with the process of underdevelopment posed by DT, but what do they pay more emphasis to?

A

Economic Issues & External Factors

rather than internal ones

30
Q

Why is the Modern World System dynamic?

A
  • countries can move up or down as capitalism does not respect borders
  • capital will move to wherever money is being made, this is why the system continually changes as capitalism searches for profit
31
Q

In the World Systems Model, what does each component contribute?

A

CORE –> high-profit consumption of goods, benefits the most

SEMI-PERIPHERY –> some consumption of goods whilst providing some cheap labour and raw materials

PERIPHERY –> provides the core & semi-periphery with cheap labour and raw materials

32
Q

What does Karl Marx argue about global development?

A
  • capitalism is a dynamic system with an unmatchable potential for economic growth (not wholly bad)
  • capitalism = the best way to achieve growth, the problem is the inequalities it produces
  • growth under capitalism is only progress if the wealth is distributed through socialism after development
33
Q

What similarity do Marx’s beliefs have with Modernisation theory?

A

They both expect REVOLUTIONARY change rather than gradual evolutionary change

34
Q

What are Marx’s stages of economy/society through development?

A
  1. Primitive Communism
  2. Imperialism
  3. Colonialism
  4. Capitalism
  5. Socialism
  6. Communism

(circular structure)

35
Q

What did Warren (trad. Marxist) contend in 1980 about global development?

A
  • claimed he found evidence of industrial growth in third world - indicating independent development was possible
  • colonialism introduced capitalism to the third world & they took the economic philosophy on board
  • economic relations with first world countries strengthened independent capitalism (more the result of internal factors)
36
Q

What is The Theory Impasse & why did it emerge?

A
  • Booth, 1985: the idea that the metanarratives were ineffective and there was no consensus amongst Sociologists
  • In the 1980s, both Modernisation theory and Dependency theory were unable to explain adequately how the world was changing
37
Q

What are the reasons for Impasse?

A
  1. Development theories failed
    (the 1980s = ‘lost decade’, financial crashes and social problems, DTs couldn’t explain the Asian Tigers)
  2. Postmodernists appeared
    (argued development theories were ethnocentric and wanted to look beyond capitalist development)
  3. Globalisation posed issues for existing theories
    (state lines became blurred and lost meaning, old theories therefore out of date)
  4. Environmentalism
    (not everyone agreed development was substantial or desirable of the planet was ruined/damaged)
38
Q

What is People-Centred Development and Environmentalism?

A
  • A SOCIALIST theory

* looks at health & happiness as indicators of successful development

39
Q

What are the main interests of development for People-Centred Development and Environmentalist thinkers?

A
  • SUSTAINABILITY: support your own people, everyone benefits
  • PARTICIPATION: communities should get a say in development in their area
  • JUSTICE: include marginalised groups & ensure equality in law
  • BASIC NEEDS: welfare, health, education and food/water
40
Q

What are the main features of People-centred development projects when in action?

A
  • often small scale as communities decide to create these societies
  • mostly run by NGOs - money that would have gone to government’s channelled to them
  • a lesser role of governments
41
Q

Why is the impact of a People-centred approach limited?

A

When successful, they can drastically improve the lives of people as the structure takes a ‘bottom up’ approach rather than a ‘top down’.

Nevertheless, this effect is limited because the small scale of the projects could never lift an entire country out of poverty

42
Q

What is post-development?

A
  • A 1990s post-modernist theory
  • claims earlier theories are outdated because we are now living in a post-structuralist society (globalisation & neoliberalism removed past structures) & the theories were too ethnocentric (focus was on how the US & Europe developed, failed to explain the ‘Asian Tigers’)
43
Q

What does Escobar argue?

A
  • accepts that changes are needed
  • but there can be no universal model of development
  • argues people need to be fully involved in the changes
  • questions whether the term ‘development’ is useful at all as it assumed Western superiority
44
Q

What is Neoliberalism’s effect on Modernisation theory?

A

It replaced modernisation theory as the guiding ‘official’ approach to development (post-1980s).

45
Q

What do Neoliberals believe about obstacles to development?

A
  • Obstacles to development are internal (like MTs)
  • therefore, they focus on economic policies & institutions that hold back the FREE MARKET
  • SOLUTION = let capitalism generate wealth and development will occur
46
Q

What do Neoliberals mean by ‘trickle down’?

A

Capitalism/opening up the free market in developing countries will generate wealth/development

However, this will initially only impact a minority (successful entrepreneurs) until the wealth TRICKLES DOWN to the majority

47
Q

What do Neoliberals believe about the state’s involvement in the economy?

A

The state should take a step back concerning investment into the economy - let capitalism generate the wealth

48
Q

When was Neoliberalism first actively applied?

A

Chile, 1970s –> then under Thatcher 1979-90

49
Q

What do Neoliberal policies aim to do?

A

Reduce the role of the state because state interference is seen as distorting the balance between supply & demand

50
Q

List some key Neoliberal policies

A
  • Privatisation
  • Cutting subsidies
  • Getting rid of ‘parastatal’ institutions
  • Cutting state spending
  • Cutting taxes
  • Free Trade
  • Intergration
51
Q

What are ‘parastatal’ institutions

A

Marketing boards through which the gov regulate production & distribution and pricing of some goods being reduced

52
Q

What are SAPs?

A

Structural Adjustment Programmes

a set of policies imposing neoliberal policies on governments, used by IGOs (IMF)

53
Q

What is the IMF?

A

International Monetary Fund

a key IGO that gives loans to members and has spread neo-liberal economic globalisation

54
Q

What does The World Bank do?

A

A key IGO

gives aid & loans to members to fight poverty

it is often accused of spreading neo-liberal economic globalisation

55
Q

What is the Washington Consensus?

A

A set of neoliberal policies which were argued to be essential for reforming economies and promoting development

56
Q

Some countries willingly adopt Neoliberal policies, however, they are enforced on some governments. How is this done?

A

They’re imposed by SAPs created by the IMF/other IGOs

The World Bank & IMF agree these policies act as a development strategy - together with Liberal Democratic Political Systems

57
Q

How are IGOs criticised for imposing Neoliberal policies on others?

A

Despite imposing Neoliberal economic policies, some Western nations like the UK and USA have tariffs and trade barriers to protect domestic industry & agriculture

58
Q

If Neoliberal policies are unsuccessful in developing countries, what do Neoliberals argue?

A

That the economic policies had not been implemented correctly

59
Q

What is a criticism of Neoliberalism?

A

Weisbrot et al, 2001

They argue that the liberalisation of trade and capital flow has caused a decline in progress

Neoliberals do not give any reasoning behind why the Washington Consensus is the best route to development

Global Development (4 decks)

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