Theories Flashcards by Alexander D.

Theory Based Categorization

Includes categorization by:
Classical Approach - isolating features of a category
Prototype Approach- finding characteristic features of a category
Exemplar Approach - finding example category members
Theory-Based Approach - Using experience to construct a theory about the category

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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Behavior is determined by language

> Strong version has been rejected
> Supporting evidence: Color sorting task in Russian vs English
> Contrasting evidence: Thought isn’t limited by language

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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Behavior is determined by language

> Strong version has been rejected
> Supporting evidence: Color sorting task in Russian vs English
> Contrasting evidence: Thought isn’t limited by language

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Chunking Theory

Experts form more chunks that contain more information than the chunks created by novices

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Template Theory

Chunks that are used frequently are developed into complex templates

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Mental Model Theory (Johnson-Laird)

People construct mental models while performing reasoning tasks
A model is a representation of the possible states of nature
assumes that people engage in deductive reasoning more than they do.

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Collection of Dual System Theories

General Theory, that there is a system 1 (unconscious, parallel, fast) and a system 2 (conscious, rule-based, limited capacity, linked to intelligence)
1) Heuristic-Analytic Theory
2)

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Heuristic Analytic Theory

Heuristic Processes (System1)
Analytic Processes (System2)
> Singularity Principle: Only one mental model is considered
> Relevance Principle: The most plausible model is considered
> Satisficing Principle: First adequate model is accepted
Limitation: oversimplifying

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Social Contract Theory

people can detect cheaters

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Theory of formal discipline

learning an abstract rule system can affect reasoning about everyday events
- rejected due to lack of evidence

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Terror Management Theory

people deploy cognitive defences when prompted to consider their own death which impairs performance on cognitive tasks.

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Base rate Neglect

Cognitive error, in which we ignore the initial probability of something.

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Conjunction Fallacy

Assumption that the combination of two things is more likely than one of the two things by itself.

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Support Theory

A given event will appear more or less likely, depending on how it is described (-> framing)

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Expected Utility Theory (Neumann & Morgenstern)

people make decisions in order to maximize their utility

- Expected Utility = P(x) * U(x) | U(x) = Utility of the event

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Prospect Theory (Tversky & Kahnemann)

theory in behavioral economics that says:
1. Individuals identify a reference point representing their current state
2. Individuals are more sensitive to potential losses than to gains
Limitations: doesn’t explain why; Social and emotional factors are neglected

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Sunk Cost Effect

The tendency to continue something, once effort/time/money has been already invested in it, even if the behavior is maladaptive.

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Framing Effect

Influence of objectively irrelevant aspects of the situation on decision making
- example: wording

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Omission Bias

Tendency to prefer inaction when engaged in risky decision making
-> Avoidance of anticipated regret

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Rational-Emotional Model (Anderson)

Decision making is determined by rational factors based on information and emotion
- major emotions are regret and fear

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Relational Models Theory

4 basic mental models representing social interactions
1. Communal Sharing
2. Authority Ranking
3. Equality Matching
4. Market Pricing

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Social intuitionist Model (Haidt)

Consists of a set of links connecting the types of psychological processing intuition, judgement and reasoning

Cue -> Intuition -> Judgement -> (post-hoc)Reasoning
Persuasion affects someone else’s judgement only via his/her intuition

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Dual Process Model of Moral Judgement (Greene)

Deontological Moral Judgements: concerns for rights and duties and are driven by intuitive emotional responses
Utilitarian Judgements: promote the greater good and are supported by controlled cognitive processes that seem more like moral reasoning
both is affected by rule-based cognitive control

Appraisal Theory

> Emotions are adaptive responses that are elicited based on how an individual evaluates the situation
Appraisal -> Emotion -> Action

Bargaining Zone Framework

Each party in a negotiation has some reservation point below or above which the negotiator rejects the outcome. Value of the reservation point = BATNA The overlap of the ranges between the parties initial offer and their respective reservation points is the bargaining zone. -> Positive bargaining zone: when a compromise can be found which is in both accepted ranges -> Negative Bargaining Zone: when the reservation points don't overlap, creating a zone in the middle, where the compromise lies, but no one really wants to go.

Role Congruity Theory

We behave according to our perceived social role, (which can impact the outcome of negotiations)

What is the difference between low- and high-context cultures?

High-context: People are involved in social relationships and information is widely shared -> Makes it less necessary to use explicit speech Low-context: people are more individualistic and use more explicit speech

What is the foreign language effect?

That bilingual speakers are more likely to endorse utilitarian judgements when speaking the non-native language

What is deontological reasoning?

- Part of System 1 - use of rules to distinguish what's right or wrong (not necessarily greater good, but moral rules, anticipated consequences etc.)

What is the intention of utilitarian reasoning?

The outcome should produce the greatest common good. | - System 2 needs to be engaged for this.

Explain moral dumbfolding

When people have intuitive responses but no rational way of explaining them. Linked to Social Intuitionist Model

What three components make up Empathy?

1. Emotional Sharing 2. Empathic Concern 3. Perspective taking

Describe 4 Strategies for deductive reasoning problems.

1. Pragmatic Strategy: Processing as it is done during normal conversations 2. Semantic Strategy: Using background knowledge 3. Inhibitory Strategy: Inhibiting the impact of pragmatic strategies 4. Generative Strategy: Combining inhibitory strategy and abstract analytic thinking -> First two are system 1, Second 2 are System 2

What is prior history of the classical view of categorization?

Biederman's Recognition by components model

What undermines the classical view of categorization?

Peoples' susceptibility to the typicality effect

What is a strength of the classical view of categorization?

Works best with nominal concepts with clear boundaries

What is an important prior result to the Gestalt Approach?

Thorndike's Behaviourist approach

What are characteristic features of the gestalt approach?

- Insight - Feeling of warmth just before the insight - Productive Thinking

What is a competing theory of the Gestalt approach and why?

Problem space hypothesis - Problem is a set of sub-goals rather than one insight

What is an important prior result to the problem space Hypothesis?

GPS - General Problem Solver

What is an important foregoing result to Kahneman and Tversky's Prospect Theory?

The inaccuracy of the Expected Utility Theory

What is the core of the Prospect Theory?

Decisions are made depending on possible losses and gains. We perceive the value of a gain to increase slowly whereas a potential loss increases rapidly in gravity.

What is a competing theory of the prospect theory?

Social Functionalist Approach.

Name two key terms of the prospect Theory

Reference point | Loss aversion

What is the dominance principle and in which theory does it play a role?

- It states that we try to always decide for the best possible option - Part of Expected Utility Theory

What is a limitation of the prospect Theory?

It doesn't explain why we are loss-averse

What is important prior history to Kahneman's Dual System Model?

William James exploring the two ways of thinking: associative and true

How does the Multiple Attribute Utility Theory elaborate on the Expected Utility Theory?

It acknowledges that decision making in everyday life is more complex than anticipated. -> States that decision makers go through various stages identifying attributes of multiple options.

What is a prior result, that supports Simon's Theory of Bounded Rationality?

The insight, that most regularly people fail to make optimal decisions.

What does the Bounded Rationality Theory state?

We use heuristics in order to make reasonable decisions despite our limited knowledge and processing power.

What is a central process within bounded rationality?

Satisficing - selecting the first option meeting certain minimum criteria

How is elimination by aspects theory related to bounded rationality?

The theories are competing since elimination by aspects states that we consider one relevant attribute after another.

What is an important prior finding to the social intuitionist model?

Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning

What is the practical explanation of the social intuitionist model?

We form moral judgements based on intuition and justify them after the fact (post-hoc) using reasoning.

According to the norm sensitivity hypothesis, what effect does the dopaminergic system have?

It accentuates the (cultural) differences between interdependence and independence by making the individual more sensitive to positive reinforcement.

How elaborates the prototype view on the classical approach of categorization?

It is based on similarity to a prototype, so there are not clear boarders and categories are more on a scale.