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Complex Cognition > Theories > Flashcards

Theories Flashcards

1
Q

Theory Based Categorization

A

Includes categorization by:
Classical Approach - isolating features of a category
Prototype Approach- finding characteristic features of a category
Exemplar Approach - finding example category members
Theory-Based Approach - Using experience to construct a theory about the category

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2
Q

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

A

Behavior is determined by language

  • > Strong version has been rejected
  • > Supporting evidence: Color sorting task in Russian vs English
  • > Contrasting evidence: Thought isn’t limited by language
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3
Q

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

A

Behavior is determined by language

  • > Strong version has been rejected
  • > Supporting evidence: Color sorting task in Russian vs English
  • > Contrasting evidence: Thought isn’t limited by language
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4
Q

Chunking Theory

A

Experts form more chunks that contain more information than the chunks created by novices

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5
Q

Template Theory

A

Chunks that are used frequently are developed into complex templates

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6
Q

Mental Model Theory (Johnson-Laird)

A
  • People construct mental models while performing reasoning tasks
  • A model is a representation of the possible states of nature
  • assumes that people engage in deductive reasoning more than they do.
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7
Q

Collection of Dual System Theories

A

General Theory, that there is a system 1 (unconscious, parallel, fast) and a system 2 (conscious, rule-based, limited capacity, linked to intelligence)
1) Heuristic-Analytic Theory
2)

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8
Q

Heuristic Analytic Theory

A
  • Heuristic Processes (System1)
  • Analytic Processes (System2)
  • > Singularity Principle: Only one mental model is considered
  • > Relevance Principle: The most plausible model is considered
  • > Satisficing Principle: First adequate model is accepted
  • Limitation: oversimplifying
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9
Q

Social Contract Theory

A

people can detect cheaters

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10
Q

Theory of formal discipline

A

learning an abstract rule system can affect reasoning about everyday events
- rejected due to lack of evidence

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11
Q

Terror Management Theory

A

people deploy cognitive defences when prompted to consider their own death which impairs performance on cognitive tasks.

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12
Q

Base rate Neglect

A

Cognitive error, in which we ignore the initial probability of something.

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13
Q

Conjunction Fallacy

A

Assumption that the combination of two things is more likely than one of the two things by itself.

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14
Q

Support Theory

A

A given event will appear more or less likely, depending on how it is described (-> framing)

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15
Q

Expected Utility Theory (Neumann & Morgenstern)

A
  • people make decisions in order to maximize their utility

- Expected Utility = P(x) * U(x) | U(x) = Utility of the event

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16
Q

Prospect Theory (Tversky & Kahnemann)

A
  • theory in behavioral economics that says:
    1. Individuals identify a reference point representing their current state
    2. Individuals are more sensitive to potential losses than to gains
  • Limitations: doesn’t explain why; Social and emotional factors are neglected
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17
Q

Sunk Cost Effect

A

The tendency to continue something, once effort/time/money has been already invested in it, even if the behavior is maladaptive.

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18
Q

Framing Effect

A

Influence of objectively irrelevant aspects of the situation on decision making
- example: wording

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19
Q

Omission Bias

A

Tendency to prefer inaction when engaged in risky decision making
-> Avoidance of anticipated regret

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20
Q

Rational-Emotional Model (Anderson)

A

Decision making is determined by rational factors based on information and emotion
- major emotions are regret and fear

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21
Q

Relational Models Theory

A
  • 4 basic mental models representing social interactions
    1. Communal Sharing
    2. Authority Ranking
    3. Equality Matching
    4. Market Pricing
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22
Q

Social intuitionist Model (Haidt)

A

Consists of a set of links connecting the types of psychological processing intuition, judgement and reasoning

  • Cue -> Intuition -> Judgement -> (post-hoc)Reasoning
  • Persuasion affects someone else’s judgement only via his/her intuition
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23
Q

Dual Process Model of Moral Judgement (Greene)

A
  • Deontological Moral Judgements: concerns for rights and duties and are driven by intuitive emotional responses
  • Utilitarian Judgements: promote the greater good and are supported by controlled cognitive processes that seem more like moral reasoning
  • both is affected by rule-based cognitive control
24
Q

Appraisal Theory

A
  • > Emotions are adaptive responses that are elicited based on how an individual evaluates the situation
  • Appraisal -> Emotion -> Action
25
Q

Bargaining Zone Framework

A

Each party in a negotiation has some reservation point below or above which the negotiator rejects the outcome. Value of the reservation point = BATNA
The overlap of the ranges between the parties initial offer and their respective reservation points is the bargaining zone.
-> Positive bargaining zone: when a compromise can be found which is in both accepted ranges
-> Negative Bargaining Zone: when the reservation points don’t overlap, creating a zone in the middle, where the compromise lies, but no one really wants to go.

26
Q

Role Congruity Theory

A

We behave according to our perceived social role, (which can impact the outcome of negotiations)

27
Q

What is the difference between low- and high-context cultures?

A

High-context: People are involved in social relationships and information is widely shared -> Makes it less necessary to use explicit speech

Low-context: people are more individualistic and use more explicit speech

28
Q

What is the foreign language effect?

A

That bilingual speakers are more likely to endorse utilitarian judgements when speaking the non-native language

29
Q

What is deontological reasoning?

A
  • Part of System 1
  • use of rules to distinguish what’s right or wrong (not necessarily greater good, but moral rules, anticipated consequences etc.)
30
Q

What is the intention of utilitarian reasoning?

A

The outcome should produce the greatest common good.

- System 2 needs to be engaged for this.

31
Q

Explain moral dumbfolding

A

When people have intuitive responses but no rational way of explaining them.
Linked to Social Intuitionist Model

32
Q

What three components make up Empathy?

A
  1. Emotional Sharing
  2. Empathic Concern
  3. Perspective taking
33
Q

Describe 4 Strategies for deductive reasoning problems.

A
  1. Pragmatic Strategy: Processing as it is done during normal conversations
  2. Semantic Strategy: Using background knowledge
  3. Inhibitory Strategy: Inhibiting the impact of pragmatic strategies
  4. Generative Strategy: Combining inhibitory strategy and abstract analytic thinking

-> First two are system 1, Second 2 are System 2

34
Q

What is prior history of the classical view of categorization?

A

Biederman’s Recognition by components model

35
Q

What undermines the classical view of categorization?

A

Peoples’ susceptibility to the typicality effect

36
Q

What is a strength of the classical view of categorization?

A

Works best with nominal concepts with clear boundaries

37
Q

What is an important prior result to the Gestalt Approach?

A

Thorndike’s Behaviourist approach

38
Q

What are characteristic features of the gestalt approach?

A
  • Insight
  • Feeling of warmth just before the insight
  • Productive Thinking
39
Q

What is a competing theory of the Gestalt approach and why?

A

Problem space hypothesis - Problem is a set of sub-goals rather than one insight

40
Q

What is an important prior result to the problem space Hypothesis?

A

GPS - General Problem Solver

41
Q

What is an important foregoing result to Kahneman and Tversky’s Prospect Theory?

A

The inaccuracy of the Expected Utility Theory

42
Q

What is the core of the Prospect Theory?

A

Decisions are made depending on possible losses and gains. We perceive the value of a gain to increase slowly whereas a potential loss increases rapidly in gravity.

43
Q

What is a competing theory of the prospect theory?

A

Social Functionalist Approach.

44
Q

Name two key terms of the prospect Theory

A

Reference point

Loss aversion

45
Q

What is the dominance principle and in which theory does it play a role?

A
  • It states that we try to always decide for the best possible option
  • Part of Expected Utility Theory
46
Q

What is a limitation of the prospect Theory?

A

It doesn’t explain why we are loss-averse

47
Q

What is important prior history to Kahneman’s Dual System Model?

A

William James exploring the two ways of thinking: associative and true

48
Q

How does the Multiple Attribute Utility Theory elaborate on the Expected Utility Theory?

A

It acknowledges that decision making in everyday life is more complex than anticipated. -> States that decision makers go through various stages identifying attributes of multiple options.

49
Q

What is a prior result, that supports Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality?

A

The insight, that most regularly people fail to make optimal decisions.

50
Q

What does the Bounded Rationality Theory state?

A

We use heuristics in order to make reasonable decisions despite our limited knowledge and processing power.

51
Q

What is a central process within bounded rationality?

A

Satisficing - selecting the first option meeting certain minimum criteria

52
Q

How is elimination by aspects theory related to bounded rationality?

A

The theories are competing since elimination by aspects states that we consider one relevant attribute after another.

53
Q

What is an important prior finding to the social intuitionist model?

A

Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning

54
Q

What is the practical explanation of the social intuitionist model?

A

We form moral judgements based on intuition and justify them after the fact (post-hoc) using reasoning.

55
Q

According to the norm sensitivity hypothesis, what effect does the dopaminergic system have?

A

It accentuates the (cultural) differences between interdependence and independence by making the individual more sensitive to positive reinforcement.

56
Q

How elaborates the prototype view on the classical approach of categorization?

A

It is based on similarity to a prototype, so there are not clear boarders and categories are more on a scale.

Complex Cognition (9 decks)

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