theories 20 (no PM)

Question 1

Fuctionalism

Answer 1

a macro, structural theory. It focuses on examining how the social system works as a whole and how social institutions shape individuals’ behaviour. It is a consensus theory as it sees society based on agreement among its members on shared values. Functionalism takes on the positivist methodology. It argues that society can be studied objectively. that this can provide us with the truth about society and we can use this truth to improve society

Question 2

Parsons organic analogy

Answer 2

To functionalists, society is like a human body. There are 3 similarities
both society and the human body are systems of interrelated interdependent parts that fit together. In a body these parts our organs in a society they are social institutions.

Both have needs - if these arent met both the body and society will die

Both depend on the functions performed by its diff parts

Question 3

Parsons – Value consensus, social

order and integration of individuals

Answer 3

Parsons argue that society needs social order and it is achieved through the existence of value consensus.This is when all of society’s members share the same culture. in this way the systems needs are met
Individuals share the same value consensus for 2 reasons

1.socialised
2.society has a system of control through rewards and sanctions
hence individuals’ behaviour is oriented towards pursuing shared goals and meeting society’s needs.

Question 4

parsons 1.social system

parsons 2 systems needs

Answer 4

1 .all the diff sub systems make up the social system. Social system is made up of diff parts through which individuals’ behaviour is determined.

2 social system has 4 needs and these are met through the sub system

Parsons argues that adaptation and goal attainment are the instrumental needs – they are means to an end, e.g. producing food to sustain the population.

Integration and latency are expressive needs, they involve the expression or channelling of emotions as long as these are met, social stability is maintained

Question 5

Parsons – 3. Functions

Answer 5

Family – primary socialisation and stabilisation of
adult personalities.

Education - secondary socialisation and the bridge
between the family and society.

Religion - …

Question 6

According to parsons there are 2 types of society what are they?

Answer 6

traditional and modern
each type of society has its own set of norms and values
For example, in a modern society, they are:

Individual self-interest
Achieved status
Universalistic standards

While in traditional society, the norms are:

Collectivism
Ascribed status
Particularistic standards

Question 7

Parsons expl of social change

Answer 7

societies change from traditional to modern through a process called structural differentiation . E,g in a trad family many of the functions are performed by the institution of the family, but in a ms many of the family’s functions are taken over by the state - ed, welfare system etc

societies also change from T to M through a gradual , evolutionary process of increasing complexity through a dynamic equilibrium whereby a change in one part of the system causes a change to another

Question 8

Merton internal criticisms of Parsons

Answer 8

Merton criticises Parsons for making three assumptions:

Indispensability – Parsons assumes that everything in society is indispensable in its existing form. Merton argues that there could be functional alternatives, e.g. communes could carry out primary socialisation as well as the family.

Functional unity – Parsons assumes that all parts of society are interrelated and interdependent. Merton points out that some parts of society can have functional autonomy, e.g. there is no functional link between the structure of banking and the rules of sport.

Universal functionalism – Parsons assumes that everything in society performs a positive function. Merton points out that some things may be dysfunctional for some members of society

Question 9

Merton builds on the work of Parsons by creating a distinction between manifest and latent functions. This distinction reveals the hidden connection between social phenomena. explain manifest and latent functions

Answer 9

Manifest function – is the intended, apparent function of an
action.

Latent function – is the unintended function of an action.

Merton describes the Hopi rain dance as performing the latent function of promoting social solidarity at times of hardship while its manifest function is to summon rain.

Therefore, Merton builds on the work of Parsons by acknowledging that:
Functions can be both functional and dysfunctional for society.
Each function has direct, intended functions as well as indirect, unintended functions.

Question 10

eval of functionalism

Answer 10

The theory is deterministic as it assumes that individual’s behaviour is wholly determined by social factors. It therefore ignore the influence of free will and individual choice on individual’s behaviour.

It has an over-socialised view of individuals – it assumes that everyone shares the same norms and values, thus ignoring those who can resist the process of socialisation.

It ignores social dysfunction such as domestic abuse.

Question 11

New right criticism

Answer 11

Lack of concern for the underdog,
e.g. working class.

Acceptance of capitalism,
competition, established laws and
institutions as legitimate.

Agreement with the idea of
natural differences between
individuals.

Sexist in its ideas on gender roles,
blames women (single mothers)
for problems cause by capitalism
(poverty, anti-social behaviour).

Question 12

Marxism

Answer 12

agrees with FUnctionalism that society is a structure or a system that shapes our behaviour. Howver, unlike functionalists marxists don’t see society as harmonious and based on value consensus. Rather, they claim society is based on conflict of interests between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Therefore, Marxism is a conflict perspective. Marxists also claim that in such a society there is always the possibility of revolutionary change. Marx argued that it was possible to study society scientifically and that this knowledge can be used to improve society Therefore, he was a Positivist and described his theory as scientific socialism

Question 13

Marx’s views on society and social

change: materialism, means of production, relations of production and primitive communism

Answer 13

Materialism is the view that humans have material needs such as food, shelter and clothing. HUmans have to work to require these needs and to do that they use the means of production such as land, tools, machinery etc. IN the earliest stages of human history, MOP were shared communally and people co-operated together to aid production of material needs. As such they entered the relations of production - ways of organising production. At this stage, there were no classes, no private ownership and no exploitation. Marx called this stage primitive communism

Question 14

Marx’s views on society and social
change - explain the development of the 3 class  societies

Answer 14

However, with time, means of production developed caused the relations of production to change as well. As a result, classes developed and some became the
owners of the means of production. As such they could
control the relations of production.

Marx identified three such class societies:
ancient society - based on the exploitation of slvaes
feudal society- based on the exploitation of serfs
capitalist society - based on the exploitation of the wc

Question 15

Marx’s views on society and social

change 3

Answer 15

Marx referred to the means of production and the forces of production together as the mode of production, the current mode of prod is capitalism
the mode of prod forms the economic base of society (infrastructure)
the infrastructure shapes the rest of society, or the superstructure which includes family , ed ,religion etc.

Question 16

explain the 2 classes by Marx

Answer 16

The bourgeoisie or the ruling class who own the means of production.
The proletariat or the working class who own nothing.
The proletariat are free, but in order to survive they have to sell their labour to the r/c in return for wages. However the wages are lower than the value of the product they make. The diff between the two is called the surplus value and is kept by the bourgeoisie as profit

Secondly, there is competition between the capitalists so the means of production become concentrated in fewer and fewer hands, Competition also enables the capitalists to pay lower and lower wages causing the immiseration of the proletariat.

Finally expands the MOP and the tech adv’s de-skill the workers. Workers are alienated from their work as they have no control over it and bc the division of labour makes their work meaningless and repetitive.

Question 17

explain 2 reasons why the wc put up with the unjust system

Answer 17

1. the ruling class ieology is created by the institutions of the superstructure and its aim is to create and maintain FCC by justifying inequality and making it appear inevitable.
2. The state which serves the interests of the r/c , through force if necessary.

However, capitalism sows the seeds of its own destruction. E.g by polarising the classes and bringing the workers together in ever larger numbers capitalism creates conditions in which the workers will become class conscious ad become a class itself- aware of the need to overthrow capitalism
the resulting revolution will abolish the state and  create a classless community replace private ownership with communal ownership
and replace production for profit with production for human need.

Question 18

criticisms of Marx

Answer 18

Marx overemphasised the importance of class and ignored other forms of inequality such as gender.

Weber argues that Marx’s two classes model is too simplistic. The middle class, rather than becoming a part of the proletariat, has grown during the 20th century. Weber also says that status and power differences can also be sources of inequality regardless of class, e.g. the power elite can rule without owning the means of production.

Economic determinism – Marx assumes that everything in society is influenced by the economic base. He ignores the fact that humans have free will and can choose to reject the ruling class ideology.

Question 19

Neo marxism - Humanistic or critical Marxism

Answer 19

Gramsci- the rc maintain their control over society in 2 ways

1. Coercion - the use of force through, the army, police , prisons to force the wc to accept the rc denomination
2. Hegemony - the rule through consent - the use of ideas and values to persuade the wc to accept the rc denomination. Rc favoured method

Rc are able to rule through hegemony as they control the institutions of the superstructure

Question 20

Unlike Marx, Gramsci argued that the economic conditions (the immiseration of the w/c) are not enough to bring about a revolution; that ideas are crucial and that the working class need to develop a counter hegemony to overthrow the bourgeoisie.

Moreover, the hegemony of the ruling class is never complete because..

Answer 20

the r/c are a minority - to rule they have to make alliances with, for example, the mc
the proletariat have dual consciousness;their impoverished state makes them see through the rc ideology
hence a revolution is always possible, providing that the w/c develop a counter hegemony through the work of organic intellectuals
Therefore, for Humanistic Marxists, social change can be brought about
by people’s conscious actions. So, unlike traditional Marxists, Gramsci is
not economically deterministic.

Question 21

criticisms of gramsci

Answer 21

over-emphasises the role of ideas and under-emphasises the role of the state an the use of coercion. E.g the workers realise theyre being exploited but do nothing in fear of the rc using force against them. They may only tolerate capitalism bc they feel they have no choice

Question 22

Structuralist Marxism

Answer 22

develope by Althusser.
for Structuralist Marxists society isnt only made up of the infra and super. it is made up of 3 levels which Craig calls structural determinism
The economic level – includes all activities which are needed to
produce something to satisfy a need.
The political level – comprises all forms of organisation.
The ideological level – involving the ways people see themselves and
the world
the 3 diff levls have relative autonomy from each other. They are connected through a two-way casualty

Question 23

according to structuralist marxists The state performs both the political and ideological
functions through two means:

Answer 23

Repressive state apparatus – the army, police, courts,
etc. They coerce the working class to accept the unjust
system.

Ideological state apparatus - the media, religion,
education. etc. These ideologically manipulate the
working class into accepting the ruling class
domination.

This is similar to Gramsci’s ideas about the r/c
dominating society through either coercion or consent.

Question 24

what do structuralist marxists believe about free will and how revolution will occur

Answer 24

Unlike Humanist Marxists (Gramsci), Althusser argues that free will is not real; it is a product of the ruling class ideology and a part of the myth of meritocracy.

In reality, we are mere puppets controlled by social structures which prepare us to fit into the pre-existing positions in society, e.g. as workers.

Therefore, revolution can’t happen as a result of a change in consciousness.

For Althusser, revolution will happen as a result of over-determination – the contradictions in the three levels that make up society.

Question 25

Criticisms of Althusser

Answer 25

Over-emphasises the influence of social structure in guiding human behaviour and ignores the influence of free will. He says he is opposed to Marx’s idea of
economic determinism, but he’s just replaced it with structural determinism.

Gouldner says Althusser’s ideas discourage political activism as he argues that individuals can do little to change their situation.

Thompson accuses Althusser of elitism – as he implies that the Communist Party knows best and that the workers should simply follow the Party’s lead.

Question 26

Liberal feminists

Answer 26

lib fems believe that all humans should have equal rights and freedom. They are in favour of reformism - the idea that progress towards equal rights can be achieved by gradual reforms. They also call for cultural changes in society e.g eradicating traditional prejudices and stereotypes about women as these are a barrier to inequality. These attitudes are socially constructed and transmitte through socialisation so to change social attitudes we must change society’s socialisation patterns

Sees society as generally patriarchal but women’s opp’s are improving bc of the fem of the economy, improved ed opps and changes in social attitudes. In addition the availability of contraception and divorce as well as women’s greater power within the family have also created more egalitarian marriages. These changes have been referred to as genderquake by Wilkinson.

Question 27

eval of liberal fem

Answer 27

strength :Positive, optimistic theory,
views gender equality as
something that is possible.

Over-optimistic. They
ignore the deep-seated
structures such as
capitalism or patriarchy
which are causing
women’s oppression.

Fail to acknowledge that
women’s experiences
differ according to their
ethnicity and class.

Question 28

Radical Fem

Answer 28

claim that patriarchy is universal and it is the main form of inequality and conflict. All men oppress all women therefore men are the enemy.

Argues that patriarchy constructs sexuality in order to satisfy men’s desires.This objectifies women into sex objects. When the patriarchal ideology fails , women are controlled through violence or the threat of it. The only way to end the patriarchy is to change the personal and sexual relationships through
separatism, consciousness-raising, political lesbianism

Question 29

eval of rad fem

Answer 29

Deterministic – ignore the fact
that some women choose to be
mothers and housewives and
enjoy those roles.

Present an over-socialised view
of women – implying that all
women are under the influence
of the patriarchal ideology.

Ignore class and ethnic
inequalities between women and
how they experience patriarchy.

Offer unachievable solutions.

Ignore violence by women
against men and within lesbian
relationships.

Question 30

Marxist Feminism

Answer 30

women’s oppression is rooted in capitalism. Women’s opp results from their primary role as an unpaid homemaker. Through this role women perform a number of vital functions for cap:
1 women are a source of cheap exploitative labour - they can be paid less as the capitalists assume they are dep on their husbands
2. women are a reserve army of labour - to be called upon when needed
3. WOmen reproduce the future labour force - by nurturing and socialising the future labour force as well as servicing the current labour force (their husbands)
4. women absorb anger - from their husbands who are alienated from work
Barrett- the rc use the ideology of familism to keep women subjugated This ideoloy presents the family as natural and normal. Therefore, according to Benson, patriarchy is part of the r/c ideology through which the r.c divide and rule the male an female w.c

To end women’s oppression, we must overthrow the capitalist system, but also the
ideology of familism.

Question 31

marx fem eval

Answer 31

Fail to explain the subordination of
women in non- capitalist societies.

Ignores the extent to which men
oppress women.

The reserve army of labour aspect of
the theory fails to account for why
there are ‘men’s’ and ‘women’s’
jobs.

Walby argues that women’s
domestic role actually harms
capitalism because, if women were
working, wages would be even
lower, as a result of increased
competition for jobs, and profits
higher.

Question 32

Dual system Feminism

Answer 32

combo of rad and marx fem
Hartmann- women are oppressed by the patriarchal capitalism - patriarchy and cap are two intertwined systems that reinforce each other
Walby-argues that the interests of patriarchy and capitalism are not always the same e.g. capitalism demands cheap female labour, while patriarchy wants to keep women performing free domestic labour. Capitalism is more powerful so patriarchy adapts and women are only allowed into paid work in low status ‘women’s jobs’, where they are still subordinate to men.

Question 33

criticism of dual system fem

Answer 33

Pollert argues that patriarchy is not a system in the
same sense that capitalism is as, while capitalism is driven by its
own internal dynamic of profit making, patriarchy is simply a
descriptive term for a range of practices that subordinate women.

Question 34

Difference or Poststructural Feminism

Answer 34

Argue that women’s experience of patriarchy varies with social class,ethnicity and sexuality.
It is critical of the fem theory in general for being a false universality ad for being essentialist when in fact, it has only ever represented white,western heterosexual , mc women
For example, by seeing the family as the only source of oppression, white Feminists have ignored black women’s experience of racist oppression.
Butler is concerned with discourse - ways of seeing ,thinking and speaking about something. Discourse gives power to those who use it. For example, by defining childbirth as a medical condition, doctors gain power over women.
Poststructuralist Feminists agree with Diff Fem that feminist movement can’t be universal as women do not share the same essence. The solution is to deconstruct different discourses to see how they subordinate women.

Question 35

eval of diff or ps fem

Answer 35

Ignore the similarity
between all women –
that we are all faced
with patriarchy.

Feminist movement is
weakened if women are
not united, but are
separated into smaller
factions.

Question 36

Social Action Theories

Answer 36

are micro theories-they focus on the actions and interactions of individual. Hence they are voluntaristic and that individuals possess agency - the ability to act as free agents, creating and shaping our society through our actions, meanings and choices

Question 37

social action theories methodology

Answer 37

full understanding (verstehen) of the meanings behind people's actions requires detailed and sensitive study, so this is usually done by interpretive methods which generate qualitative data. Observation or in depth informal interviews are frequently used
Some Social Action theorists adopt a grounded bottom up approach. Others study and explain the interactions of people in small groups without necessarily relating them to strata

Question 38

Weber’s Social Action Theory

Answer 38

Weber argued for a full understanding of human behaviour structural action approaches need to be combined
A full Sociological expl of human behaviour therefore involves:
The level of cause- we need to explain the structural factors that shape people’s behaviour

The level of meaning- we need to understand the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions

Question 39

However there are infinitelymany meanings that individuals can give to their actions so WEBER classified all meanings into 4 categories

Answer 39

instrumentally rational action - the individual’s actions are decided through the most efficient means of achieving a given goal

Value rational action - involves action towards a goal that the individual regards as desirable for its own sake

Traditional action - involves customary routine ,routine or habitual action. these are done bc ‘weve always done it’

Affectual action - is action that expresses emotion

Question 40

Weber Social Action theory eval

Answer 40

webers view of human actions is too individualistic it fails to explain the shared nature of meanings

webers typology of meanings is difficult to apply

weber advocated the use of verstehen or emphatic understanding of the actor’s meaning, but we can never do that as we can never be that person

Question 41

Symbol Interactionism

Answer 41

Symbolic Interactionism theorists argue that humans create the social world through our actions and interactions; these interactions are in turn based on meanings we give to situations and the meanings are conveyed through symbols such as lang

Question 42

SYmbolic interactionism - Mead

Answer 42

MEAD- our behaviour is influenced by the meanings we give to the things that are significant to us. The meanings are created by attaching symbols to the world. So, when faced with a stimulus we first interpret its meanings then respond to it.
We manage to interpret other people’s meanings by role-taking and putting ourselves in their place and seeing ourselves as they see us. We learn to do to do this through social interaction.
This ability to see ourselves as othes see us is crucial for us to be able to function as members of society/ Mead’s theory explains that social order is maintained bc individuals have an internalised representation of the pov of others

Question 43

Symbolic Interactionism-Labelling theory

Answer 43

Thomas argues that if we define a situation as real, then it will have real consequences.
Cooley developed a concept of the looking glass self to explain how, through interactions with others, we put ourselves the way they see us thus developing our self-concept.
Becker and Lemert argue that labelling an individual e.ga drug user will lead to that label becoming the person’s master status and thus leading to a criminal career.

Question 44

weakness of Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 44

ignores wider social structures such as class ineq. or patriarchy in affecting people’s actions

Deterministic as it assumes that the label will always lead to a S-F P

Question 45

Phenomenology- Husserl

Answer 45

argued that the world only makes sense bc we impose meaning and order on it by constructing mental categories that we use to classify info therefore the world is a product of our mind

Question 46

Phenomenology - Schutz

Answer 46

Schutz argues that these categories of meanings are shared among the members of a society. He calls these shared categories of meaning typifications or commonsense knowledge.
Typifications are necessary bc meanings depend on their social context. Typifications clarify the meaning thus maintaining social order
However, society appears real to us as we have adopted the natural attitude-an assumption that society is real. Schutz argues that society appears real bc all those involved in actions allows us to co-operate.

Question 47

eval of Phenomenology

Answer 47

Berger and Luckmann argue that even though reality is socially constructed, once it has been constructed it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back to us

Question 48

Ethnomethodology

Answer 48

Garfinkel aims to explain how social order is achieved. Argues that meanings are always potentially unclear as they depend on their social context. He calls this indexicality. This is a threat to social order. However, what enables us to behave as if meanings are clear and obvious is reflexivity. This includes commonsense knowledge in interactions to construct a sense of meaning and order.

Question 49

eval of ethnomethodology

Answer 49

ignores the influence of wider structures in affecting the meanings, e.g Marxists would argue that commonsense knowledge is really just r/c ideology

Question 50

Structuration

Answer 50

Giddens argues that theres a duality of structure through our actions we produce structures overtime, while these structures make our actions possible in the first place. Giddens calls this structuration.
Structure has 2 elements:
Rules - the norms, customs and laws that govern actions.
Resources -economic resources such as raw materials and tech as well as power over others.
By following the rules as part of our everyday activities, we reproduce the existing structures of society. We do this bc we have a deep-seated need for ontological security- a feeling that the world is orderly, stable and predictable. However, aswell as reproducinhg social structures,our actions can also change them. THis is bc we constantly reflexively monitor our behaviour and can choose a new course of action which would cause a change to the structures.

Question 51

eval of Structuration

Answer 51

Archer argues that Giddens underestimates the extent to which structures can resist change