Theoretical Approaches

Question 1

What is a scientific theory?

Answer 1

• An intellectual framework
  
  • Organises knowledge from observations and experimental evidence about a topic/phenomenon
  • The theory can then be used to inform future research

Question 2

Scientific theories in studies of sexuality help to …?

Answer 2

• Help to organise, correct, and generate knowledge
• Help to communicate about sexuality
• Are not static trust but dynamic -> They can be challenged/changed with new evidence

Question 3

A good theory should be (3)?

Answer 3

• Testable
• Coherent
• Generalizable

Question 4

How can we use theory to understand sexuality?

Answer 4

• Theories allow us to generate testable hypotheses about human sexuality
• A hypothesis is a predication based on theory, about expected outcomes of a study.

Question 5

4 Steps of the Scientific Process? Think about a circle

Answer 5

Theory, use the theory to make a prediction ->
Prediction, design an experiment to test the prediction ->
Experiment, perform the experiment ->
Observation, create or modify the theory ->

Question 6

No one theory is perfect or sufficient. Why?

Answer 6

• Human sexuality is complex
• No one theory can capture all aspects of human sexuality

Question 7

3 Main Theories?

Answer 7

• Learning Theories
  
  • Classical Conditioning
  • Operant Conditioning
• Cognitive Theoreis
• Evolutionary Theory
  
  • Sexual Selection
  • Intra and intersexual competition
  • Sexual strategies

Question 8

Leaning Theories?

Answer 8

• Leaning theories explain how sexual behaviour can be affected by basic leaning processes such as conditions and reinforcement.
• Many effective interventions for sexual problems are based on learning theories.

Question 9

Classical Conditioning?

Answer 9

Neutral Stimulus = Unconditioned Stimulus -> Conditioned Response

Question 10

Classical Conditioning of Shoe Fetish example?

Answer 10

Women, Unconditioned Stimulus ->
Shoe, Neutral Stimulus ->
Arousal, Unconditioned Response ->
Shoes Arousal, Conditioned Response

Question 11

Operant Conditioning?

Answer 11

• An individual’s behaviour modified by its consequences or the reinforcement that they receive.
• An individual who encounters reinforcement when engaging in a certain behaviour (an operant) is more likely to repeat that behaviour in the future.
• An individual who encounters punishment when engaging in a certain behaviour is less likely to readapt that behaviour in the future.

Question 12

Operant Conditioning - Positive Reinforcement?

Answer 12

More likely to repeat a behaviour when it is rewarded.

Question 13

Operant Conditioning - Negative Reinforcement?

Answer 13

Something unpleasant is taken away in response to a stimulus, making the behaviour more likely to occur.

Question 14

Operant Conditioning - Primary Reinforcers?

Answer 14

A powerful reward that is intrinsically satisfying.

Question 15

Operant Conditioning - SEX?

Answer 15

Is both a powerful primary reinforcer and a behaviour that can be shaped by rewards and punishments.

Question 16

Operant Conditioning & Masturbation
Example for the textbook?

Answer 16

• Man working in a high stress office environment
• When stressed he likes to masturbate to porn —> this feels good and decreases his stress
  
  • Is it a positive or negative reinforcer? A negative reinforcer!
• This behaviour (masturbating at work) gets reinforced and so he does it more and more often.

Question 17

Hypothesis Testing
Formula + example?

Answer 17

• IF (describe theory), THEN (describe the prediction)
• IF there is a genetic basis to sexual dysfunction, THEN we should see higher concordance among monozygotic versus dizygotic twins.

IF a positive reinforcement would make a behaviour more likely, THEN those who experience organism during sexual relationships would have more sexual relations than those who do not.

Question 18

A note on predictions and null hypothesis testing?

Answer 18

• The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between two groups
• The alternate hypothesis proposes that there is a difference
• Hypothesis testing provides a method to REJECT THE NULL with a certain level of confidence (e.r., not chance)
• Null hypotheses cannot be proven

Question 19

Cognitive Theories?

Answer 19

• Attempt to understand human behaviour by focusing on thought processes (i.e., cognitions)
• Thoughts are subject to misconceptions, distortions, faculty assumptions, and errors when evaluating situations or information
• These types of thoughts can then interfere with aspects of sexuality
• Cognitive theories have been very influential in understanding sexual dysfunction

Question 20

Sexual beliefs and sexual functioning: The mediating role of cognitive distraction

Sample: Heterosexual CIS women can only generalise to this population

1. Hypothesis: Women will have higher levels of cognitive distraction than men.
2. Sexual beliefs will be negatively associated with participants’ sexual functioning. More negative sexual beliefs, more sexual dysfuntioning
3. Higher cognitive distraction levels will be negatively associated with participants’ sexual functioning.
4. Cognitive distraction will mediate the relationship between sexual beliefs and sexual functioning.

Answer 20

a) Direct pathway
Believes about sexual functioning -> Sexual functioning
b) Mediated pathway
Believes about sexual functioning -> Cognitive Distraction -> Sexual functioning

Results:
1. Hypothesis: Women will have higher levels of cognitive distraction than men.
Not supported (failed to detect a difference between women and men)
2. Sexual beliefs will be negatively associated with participants’ sexual functioning. More negative sexual beliefs, more sexual dysfuntioning.
Supported (sexual believes were negatively associated with sexual function in both genders)
3. Higher cognitive distraction levels will be negatively associated with participants’ sexual functioning.
Supported (cognitive distraction was negatively associated with sexual function in both genders)
4. Cognitive distraction will mediate the relationship between sexual beliefs and sexual functioning.
Partially supported (mediation effect only observed for women)

Question 21

Cognitive theories & treatment for sexual problems?

Answer 21

• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) focuses on evaluating and testing unhelpful thoughts that influence behaviour.
  Belief: “Women should orgasm from PVI” ->
  Behaviour: Only engages in PVI ->
  Thoughts: “Why am I not reaching orgasm? What is wrong with me?” ->
  Behaviour: Avoids other activities that are more likely to end in orgasm ->
  Outcome: No orgasm from PVI

Question 22

• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) often focuses on, maladaptive thoughts that influence behaviour.

Answer 22

New Belief: “There are many different ways to reach orgasm” ->
Behaviour: Engages in different sexual activities ->
Thought: “Oh this feels good, new interesting…” ->
Behaviour: Experiences heightened arousal, which reinforces engaging in different activities ->
Outcome: Orgasm!

Question 23

Come up with your own IF/THEN statement for cognitive theories (and the other learning theories), post it on the discussion board for feedback

Answer 23

:)

Question 24

Evolutionary Theory?

Answer 24

• Describes how all living things have evolved over our ancestral history.
• Evolved characteristics are selected of based on how adaptive they are, particularly in relation to survival and reproduction.

Question 25

Sexual Selection?

Answer 25

• When traits evolve beach they increase success in mating, they are the result of Sexual Selection.
• Sexual selection is:
  
  • A component of natural selection.
  • Responsible for conspicuous sex differences (e.g., secondary sexual characteristics)

Question 26

Two types of sexual selection
1. Intrasexual Selection?

Answer 26

• Traits that evolve because they help individuals vanquish same sex rivals vying for the same mates.
• Any trait that provides an advantage in direct competition with rivals over access to mates will be selected for via Intrasexual Selection
  What is an example of an evolved trait in humans that was selected for through intersexual selection?
• Physical size
• Intelligence
• Perseverance
• Covert tactics, like talking negatively

Question 27

Two types of sexual selection
2. Intersexual Selection?

Answer 27

• Traits that evolve because they help an individual attract members of the opposite sex as mates.
• Any trait that provides an advantage in attracting mates will be selected for via Intersexual Selection,
  What is an example of an evolved trait in humans that was selected for through intersexual selection?
• Sexual dimorphism

Question 28

Parental Investment Theory?

Answer 28

• The sex that has the lower minimum necessary investment (i.e, the “faster” sex) will be the sex with the heaviest sexual selection pressure.
• The sex that has the greater minimum necessary investment (i.e., the “slower” sex) will be the “choosier” sex. The choosier sex exerts greater intersexual selection on the fast sex.

Question 29

Sexual Strategies Theory
Mating strategies have evolved to overcome mating problems faced by an ancestors.
Short-term?

Answer 29

Men
- Problem of partner #
- Problem identifying fertile partners
- Problem of minimising commitment
Females
- Problems of resource extraction
- Problem of who is a ST vs. LT partner
- Problem of gene quality

Question 30

Sexual Strategies Theory
Mating strategies have evolved to overcome mating problems faced by an ancestors.
Long-term?

Answer 30

Long-term
Men
Problem of paternity certainty
Problem of gene quality/resource potential
Females
- Problem of identifying partners who will invest
- Problem of gene quality/resources

Question 31

Sexual Strategies Theory
Mating strategies have evolved to overcome mating problems faced by an ancestors.

Interaction between short- and long-term mating strategies?

Answer 31

People pursue short- and long-term mating strategies when reproductive benefits outweighs costs -> The “faster” sex will dedicate more time to short-term mating strategies because of asymmetries in parental investmen

Question 32

Sex differences in Attitudes Toward Short-Term Mating?

Answer 32

• Males demonstrate higher levels of seeking short-term relationships
• Females and males domesticates equally high levels for long-term relationships
  How might knowing someone longer influence design making around sex?
• Males and females don’t differ in the likelylihood of having sex after 5 years
• Males are more likely to report being interested in having sex than women, at any other time period
  How can SST help us to understand this sex difference?
• Males wish to have more sexual partners than females

Question 33

An attractive stranger approaches you on campus after class today and “Hey, I think you’re hit, I have noticed you around campus do you want to go back to my place and hook up right now?

Conclusion from Clark & Hatfield (1989)?

Answer 33

• Men are more indiscriminate in short-term contexts. They take opportunity for casual sex.
• Women discriminate more because they only stand to gain good genes from short-term mating.
• Subsequent research has focused on factors that influence this effect, including the sexual double standard. -> This effect becomes smaller when participants are attached to a “lie detector”