Theme 7: Irish Sea Worlds Flashcards
What was ‘power’ in the Irish Sea World?
Power in this region relies less on bureaucratic institutions, like in Eng, but more so on interpersonal relations
Power was not tidily territorialised - we should think instead in terms of centres of authority and spheres of influence (authority over men, rather than land)
Power wielded by securing submission of rivals (threats of violence, physical force) and oaths securing obligations of a lesser man to a greater on. May also be wielded by extracting tribute payments (may be cattle, may be treasure, changes throughout period)
What are our main sources here?
Source materials intractable - due to way power was concentrated in this region (no records from bureaucratic rule)
Annals, especially Irish annals (written in Irish monastic communities) - e.g. Annals of Ulster, Annals of Inisfallen
^ annalistic record much lesser in Wales and Scotland (but Irish analysts sometimes comment on these regions)
^ the fact that Irish analysts comment on these places hints at the interconnectedness of the Irish sea world, information is able to circulate
Icelandic sagas - e.g. Orkneyinga saga, Njal’s saga
Archaeology, place name evidence - can help observe processes of cultural change and settlement
sculpture - can suggest presence of Vikings in particular area (but we should be cautious of this, as it may only show that the culture of Vikings has been adapted, rather than a large scale Viking settlement)
coins - can suggest structures of power
Viking activity in the Irish Sea c.795-c.850
- 795 attack on religious community in Iona (and again in 802 and 806 — eventually encourage the community to move to Kells).
- 824 After this date major Irish monastic sites on coast attacked and from 830s onwards raids on Ireland are growing in scale.
- 839 Vikings active in central Pictland. (probably some Viking activity here before this large attack)
- 840-1 Vikings establish a base at Dublin.
- Mid 9thC: named Viking leaders appearing in Irish records. (from this point they begin to extract tribute and establish dominance over local rulers) - continue to develop centres of power and bases for trade
- 853 Vikings attack Anglesey. (likely Vikings engaged in raiding Wales before this)
Geographic limitations to Viking activity
certain geographic limitations - e.g. in Ulster, power of native kings more robust, so less Viking activity here. The Vikings generally don’t penetrate deep into the land, instead concentrating power on the coasts. If faced with significant resistance in one place, they would move to another
^ due to their marine activity, they are very mobile
Dublin and York, c.853-c.954
- 840-1 Vikings establish a base at Dublin
- 853 Olaf, king of Dublin - Irish sources tell us he ruled together with Ivarr (Ivarr the Boneless? - Viking leader involved in capture of York)
- 866 Olaf of Dublin attacks kingdom of Picts
- 866 Vikings capture York
- 870 Olaf and Ívarr attack Dumbarton in kingdom of Strathclyde
- 870x3 Death of Ívarr the Boneless
- 902 Vikings expelled from Dublin (stimulus to settlement in Man, western Scotland, north-western England)
- 937 Battle of Brunanburh
- 954 End of the Viking kingdom of York
What does Clare Downham argue about Ivarr?
Argued that Ivarr and his descendants were central in this project of tying together significant political centres in the Irish sea world
The West Saxon Kings and ‘Britain’
920 - Edward the Elder attempts to assert some nominal form of overlordship over other British rulers
- 937 – King Athelstan: battle of Brunanburh - active campaigning in the north of Br (stimulus for other rulers in the periphery to unite against him, culminating in Brunanburh - Athelstan faced a coalition incl rulers of Scotland, Dublin and Strathclyde)
- 973 King Edgar on the River Dee at Chester: ‘… the king took his whole naval force to Chester, and six kings came to meet him, and all gave him pledges that they would be his allies on sea and land.’ (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle D-text). - Barrow seas this as a peace summit, a meeting of equals, but AS chroniclers embroidered it to make it seem like a submission.
- Edgar as ‘ruler of a British empire, tenth-century style’ (Janet Nelson) - thinks Edgar really is receiving submission of lesser rulers? … Or not? (Thornton and Barrow).
Nature of Viking activity in Ireland
Vikings are not conquerors in Ireland, they don’t take kingdoms, but carve out enclaves and become key players in Irish internal politics (e.g. Wrexford, Waterford, Cork, Dublin)
Political state of Ireland
In early medieval Ireland there is competition between different province kings - a strong stimulus of this competition is a desire of many of them to acquire authority over all Ireland (’high kingship’)
As Dublin grew in size and wealth, it became an increasingly attractive prize to Irish province kings. control of Dublin could lead to control over the entire island of Ireland
Brian Bóruma, king of Munster and high king of Ireland (1002-14). - fought a bloody battle at Glenmama in 999 to conquer Dublin
Set precedent that an aspiring high king had to claim Dublin
Brian faces ongoing resistance to his reign - culminating in major rebellion and Battle of Clontarf (1014) - he wins, but is killed on the field (pyrrhic victory)
Included men from Leinster, the earl of Orkney, Irish-Norse contingents from Dublin itself
^ clearly this is not a clear story of the Irish v the Vikings
Brian is fighting a coalition aiming to preserve status quo and the old world of power relationships (the men of Leinster did not want to be subject to a king from Munster, men of Orkney may have been aiming to preserve the trading matrix in which Dublin was central)
Power of Orcadian earls
Later 9thc - emergence of significant political power in the earldom of Orkney - earls able to project power down throughout Irish sea world
Expand power onto northern mainland of Scotland
During 10thc, power of these earls extends increasingly into the Irish sea
Important Orcadian earls
- Rognvald [King Harald Finehair of Norway]
- Sigurd I, the Mighty (d. 892); Thorstein the Red (d. c. 880x90)
- Sigurd II ‘the Stout’ (c.985-1014) - present at battle of Clontarf. His rule probably did not have much in terms of institutional scaffolding - managed by chiefs who had power at a local level. Sigurd’s own power probably took the form of securing the submission of these chiefs and the ability to mobilise them for war
- Thorfinn II ‘the Mighty’ (?1009-65) - enjoyed expansive geographic reach, power remained centred on Orkney. Power rests on contingent factors - had to fight to assert control over the earldom and had to fight subsequently within the regions of the Hebrides and the Scottish mainland to force local rulers back into submission. was his father’s heir but did not inherit much - had to secure power on his own volition. Succession was not secure, couldn’t count on the loyalty of his father’s followers.
The Normans as actors in the Irish sea world
At an early stage, the Normans become new actors in the politics of the Irish sea worlds
Normans and Norwegians in Wales: Hugh of Montgomery, Hugh d’Avranches and the Battle of Anglesey Sound (1098) - drive out the Welsh king - defeated not by the Welsh, but by King Magnus Barelegs of Norway - let the Welsh king back in
Normans in Ireland and the kingdom of Man: John de Courcy (d. 1219) and his marriage to Affreca, daughter of Godred Olafsson of Man. Man to act as a stepping stone for his endeavours in Ireland.
^ powerful Cambrian-Norman families begin to intervene in Irish politics
Geopolitical state of Scotland in c.800
- Kingdom of the Picts - control lands to the north of the Clyde, interior polity of the Pictish kingdom is difficult to reconstruct (much of what we know about them comes from external annals)
- Dál Riada (Gaelic) - south west of Pictland, originates from migration from Ireland
- Strathclyde (Brittonic) - as a Brittonic kingdom, it had a people whose linguistic and cultural connections were more naturally aligned to the peoples of Wales than to the peoples of Pictland and Dál Riada
- Northumbria - encompassed much of southern Scotland
‘core periphery model’ of Scottish development (core = developing kingdom of Alba)
^ revised versions - Brown, Taylor challenged that model
Summary of the early development of Alba
From c900, we find rulers who are beginning to style themselves as kings of alba. over the course of the 10thc, the kingdom acquires sharper definition. the heartlands if the kingdom lie to the south east
alba grows in fertile plains - lots of agricultural land
Summary of Strathclyde
- A ‘Brittonic’ kingdom. - closer culturally and linguistically to the Welsh
- Expanding in tenth-century, even as far as Penrith (modern Cumbria)? - in that expansionist phase, its rulers had likely enjoyed submissions from a range of different magnates (gallic, Norse and Northumbria magnates)
- A client state of Alba? Or more autonomous (fionna edmonds)?
- The end of the kingdom: between 1018 and 1054, most likely conquered by King Malcolm II, (1005-34).
- Battle of Carham (1018): King Malcolm II (with Owen, king of Strathclyde - suggests at least an alliance and perhaps a dependence of Strathclyde on alba) defeats the men of Northumbria (led by sons of Waltheof of Bamburgh).
no set of annals (typical of these periphery regions)
Summary of Moray and the Hebrides
moray eventually comes more firmly under the kings control over the course of the 12thc, esp. under reign of David I
moray remains culturally distinctive and unstable through the 10thc
12thc chroniclers refer to moray ss if they were a distinct group of people
e.g. Somerled (built up a substantial condominium in the west by contracting strategic alliances, incl his own marriage into the royal house of the isle of man)
by 1156, he was being styles in the Irish annals as king of the Hebrides and Kintyre
by 1160s, increasingly coming into contact w king of Scotland **
Mounts an invasion of Renfrewshire in 1164 with 160 (sense of scale of the invasion rather than an accurate number) ships.
Somerled killed in battle against the army of King Malcolm IV of Scotland - on his death, the polity he had built disintegrates, breaking back down into its constituent parts
no mechanism for him to transmit what he had created to a designated successor
transient power - people can build up empires by force
Sources of instability in Alba in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
- Political/military failure:
King Duncan (1034-40) invaded north-east England in 1040, but his failure to take Durham damages his credibility. Rebellion follows in Moray. Duncan is killed in battle. MacBeth (1040-57), a leading Moray magnate, succeeds.
- Contested successions:
Macbeth is succeeded by his son, Lulach, but he is defeated and killed by Malcolm, son of Duncan, who becomes Malcolm III (1058).
Stabilising factors for the kingdom of Alba in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
- A limited circle of the ‘throne-worthy’ - you needed a claim to royal blood to be a plausible candidate for the throne
- Movement towards primogeniture in royal succession - risked putting an incompetent on the throne
- The impartibility of the kingdom. - sense that there was a kingdom of alba that was not divisible - the kingdoms could be fought over but not broken apart
- The kingdom’s ‘adhesive’ properties (Alexander Grant) - rebellions within the kingdom happen, but they often tend to be battles for the crown, not to break the kingdom (when men of moray rise, they rise to put their man on the throne, not to break away from alba)
Rise of a Scottish ‘state’ in the twelfth century
Introducing sheriffs and sheriffdoms - they can guard the king’s interests, administer justice and supervise revenue
Innovations in law and Justice - notion that some legal pleas were specifically reserved for the crown was growing. growing sense that some offences were offences against the king’s peace
Raising up new men, new lordships (and feudal tenures)
Sponsoring Church reform and patronage of new orders:
- Glasgow displaces Govan as key ecclesiastical centre in Strathclyde - deliberate move on David’s part, creating a new religious centre associated with him
- New religious houses established (Cistercians at Melrose, Jedburgh; Augustinian canons at Holyrood; Tironensians at Selkirk) - creating religious centres loyal to him, but also behaving like a European prince
David I of Scotland’s achievements
David’s ‘Scoto-Northumbrian’ (stringer’s term) realm. - started with Cumbria, setting up a new capital in Carlisle, but also pushes into Northumbria and northern Yorkshire during Stephen’s reign
David’s authority extended in c. 1153 to Rivers Ribble/Tees according to the English chronicler William of Newburgh.
^ not to last, Henry II aggressively recovers everything he has lost and more
as a result, the Scottish kings begin to look north and west
Why does Scotland become stronger in 1266?
Treaty of Perth (1266): Magnus VI of Norway concedes the Hebrides and the Isle of Man to King Alexander III of Scotland.
How are the processes of state formation in Wales and Scotland comparable?
smaller polities squeezed into a firmly subordinate relationship with the king of Scotland
Gwynedd - another example of a kingdom dominating at the expense of other native kingdoms
Early Viking activity in Ireland examples
- 795: Viking raiders from Norway initiated attacks on Irish monasteries. The first recorded raid was at Rathlin Island (Rechru), a monastic hub off the northeast coast of Ireland.
- The attackers plundered monastic wealth, including gold and relics, and captured individuals for ransom or slavery.
- 802: Vikings burned the monastery at Iona (off Scotland). In 806, they killed 68 monks in a brutal attack, leading to the relocation of treasures and relics to Kells in County Meath.
- Early 9th century: Raids were exploratory and conducted by small bands. Key locations targeted included Skellig Michael, St. Patrick’s Island (Inis Pádraic), and Inishmurray.
Intensification of raids and inland expansion
- 836: Fleets of 60 Viking ships ravaged the Boyne and Liffey valleys. They attacked monastic settlements, fortresses, and agricultural lands.
- 839: Vikings launched a fleet on Lough Neagh, the largest lake in Ireland, using it as a base to raid northern Irish kingdoms and monasteries.
- 841: Vikings established permanent bases known as longphorts at Dublin and Linn Duachaill (Annagassan). These were fortified settlements that enabled year-round raiding and trade.
- 845: The Viking leader Turges was executed by Mael Sechnaill, King of Tara, signaling growing Irish resistance.
Military and political developments for the Dublin-based Norse leaders
- 866–871: Amlaíb and Ímar led campaigns against Dumbarton Rock, the stronghold of Strathclyde. They returned to Dublin with 200 ships laden with treasure and captives.
- 869: Amlaíb attacked Armagh, taking 1,000 captives, marking one of the most significant Viking slave raids in Ireland.
The Vikings’ slave economy in the Irish sea world
- Captives from raids in Ireland, Britain, and the Hebrides were transported to Norse settlements or sold to other markets, including Scandinavia and the Islamic world.
- Major raids targeting Armagh (869), Kildare (886, 280 captives), and Donaghpatrick (895, 710 captives) highlight the scale of Viking slaving operations.
The decline of Norse power in Dublin in 902
- A coalition of Irish kings led by Máel Finnia mac Flannacain (King of Brega) and Cerball mac Muirecáin (King of Leinster) expelled the Norse from Dublin in 902. This marked the end of the first Viking Age in Ireland.
- Many Vikings fled to settlements in Britain, particularly in Northumbria and the Isle of Man.
The re-establishment of Norse power in 914
- 914: Vikings returned to Ireland with a fleet, establishing bases at Waterford and Limerick. These bases became launching points for further raids and conquests.
- 917: Key leaders Ragnall ua Ímair and Sitric Cáech reclaimed Dublin after defeating Irish forces at Islandbridge. This reestablished Norse control over the city.
- 917–920: Sitric Cáech established control over York in Northumbria, linking the Irish and English Viking territories.
- 921: The Norse leader Godfrid raided Armagh and surrounding regions, demonstrating Dublin’s continued aggression
The Battle of Clontarf
- The climactic Battle of Clontarf on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, marked a turning point in the Irish Sea world:
- Brian Boru, High King of Ireland, defeated a coalition of Vikings from Dublin, the Hebrides, and Orkney, alongside their Leinster allies.
- The battle saw heavy casualties, including Brian himself, his son Murchad, and Viking leaders such as Sigurd the Stout (Earl of Orkney).
- Though often framed as a victory of Irish over Norse, the battle was more a conflict over regional dominance. Dublin remained a prosperous, semi-independent city-state after the battle.
Evidence of the Vikings’ power in trade and the economy
- Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick became key economic centers:
- Trade: Viking merchants traded silver, furs, and slaves. Finds such as Hiberno-Norse coins and weights (e.g., the Kilmainham hoard) reflect Dublin’s role as a trading hub.
- Silver Hoards: Massive hoards like the Skaill Bay hoard (Orkney) and Penmon hoard (Anglesey) demonstrate the wealth accumulated in the Irish Sea region.
Evidence of the integration of Norse culture in the Irish sea world
- Place Names: Coastal settlements like Wicklow, Waterford, and Strangford bear Norse names. Inland names like Leixlip (lax-hloypa, “salmon leap”) indicate deeper Norse settlement.
- Language: Irish adopted Norse terms related to trade, shipping, and warfare (e.g., margad for “market,” cnarr for “ship”).
- Intermarriage: The ruling elites of Ireland and the Norse intermarried, leading to bilingualism and shared cultural practices. Key figures like Brian Boru and Sitric Silkenbeard were connected through familial ties.
How did King Athelstan consolidate his power against the Vikings?
- 924: King Edward the Elder fortified strategic locations, such as Thelwall, Manchester, and Bakewell, to protect against Norse incursions.
- 926: A peace treaty was negotiated between Sigtryggr and King Athelstan of Wessex at Tamworth.
- Sigtryggr married Eadgyth, Athelstan’s sister, and converted to Christianity.
- However, Sigtryggr later abandoned Christianity and his marriage, signaling the difficulty of maintaining alliances between Christian and Norse rulers.
Example of Viking coinage at York
Sigtryggr minted coins at York, bearing the inscription “SITRIC REX.” These coins often featured Norse symbols such as swords and Thor’s hammer, reflecting both Scandinavian and local influences.
How did the dynamic in York change in 927?
- Sigtryggr died in 927, leading to a power vacuum in York.
- Athelstan took the opportunity to assert direct control over Northumbria, becoming the first English king to rule over the entirety of England.
Commodities traded by Scandinavian York and Dublin
Exports - slaves (facilitated by raid on Irish monasteries and settlements - e.g. during a 951 raid, Gothfrith Sigtryggsson captured 3,000 slaves), hides and leather goods, furs and timber
Imports - luxury goods (e.g. amber from the Baltic, glassware from the Rhineland and pottery from continental Europe), wine and honey, silver (silver coins from York, the Islamic Caliphates and Frankish territories were common in Irish hoards)
How did the Vikings use their naval infrastructure to dominate the Irish sea?
- Fleet Mobility: Ships could be transported overland to bypass obstacles or connect rivers. For example, in 936, Norse fleets in Limerick moved their ships overland between the River Erne and River Shannon during a military campaign.
- Shipyards and Fortifications: Dublin’s longport was fortified to protect both the settlement and its docked fleets, ensuring secure trade and defense.
What was the significance of the 937 Battle of Brunanburh?
This battle is described as a watershed moment in Anglo-Saxon military history. Athelstan, the King of England, defeated a coalition led by Olafr Gothfrithsson of Dublin, Constantine II of Scotland, and Owain of Strathclyde
Despite Athelstan’s victory, the document suggests that Olafr’s defeat was not the end of his ambitions. Within three years, Olafr had regained control of York and expanded his influence north of Watling Street
The coalition’s defeat demonstrated the limitations of Norse military alliances when facing the centralized power of Wessex, but also highlighted the resilience of Norse rulers like Olafr in regrouping and pursuing their objectives
Examples to show the Norse kings of Dublin’s relationship with Irish kings
- The Norse kings of Dublin frequently clashed with Irish high kings over control of key regions and resources. For instance:
- Donnchad Donn, the Irish high king, launched an attack on Dublin in retaliation for Olafr Gothfrithsson billeting his troops at Clonmacnoise in 936, a site of great political and spiritual importance to Donnchad’s dynasty.
Scandinavian alliances and rivalries
Long-standing alliances existed between the Norse rulers of Dublin and the kingdoms of Scotland and Strathclyde. These alliances enabled the rapid formation of the coalition for Brunanburh in 937
However, shifts in alliances were common. For example, the Scots initially supported the Anglo-Saxon rulers of Bamburgh against the Grandsons of Ívarr but later aligned with the Norse after Athelstan’s conquest of York
Which battle marked the end of Norse dominance in Dublin?
The Battle of Tara (980) marked the end of Norse dominance in Dublin, with the Irish high king Máel Sechnaill defeating the forces of Olafr Cuaran
What was the significance of the 973 meeting at Chester?
- Edgar, newly crowned King of England, sought to solidify his position as the most powerful ruler in Britain.
- His assembly of rulers at Chester symbolized his claim to overlordship. By securing pledges of loyalty from rulers across the British Isles, Edgar positioned himself as a hegemonic figure.
- Edgar’s fleet was a show of military strength and control of maritime routes, which were crucial for trade and war in the Irish Sea region.
- The gathering of rulers at Chester reflected his ability to negotiate cooperation or submission without direct conflict.
Who attended the Chester meeting?
Kenneth II, King of Alba
Malcolm, King of the Cumbrians
Maccus Haraldsoon, King of the Isles
Kings of Gwynnedd, Deheubarth and Morgannwg
What was Edgar projecting at the Chester meeting?
- The Irish Sea was a critical maritime zone for trade, raiding, and communication. Control of the sea routes gave leaders like Maccus and other Norse rulers significant autonomy.
- Edgar’s fleet at Chester was a demonstration of English naval capabilities, asserting dominance over maritime activities in the Irish Sea and signaling to Norse rulers like Maccus that England could project power by sea.
Did the leaders at the Chester meeting retain their autonomy?
- The submission at Chester was largely symbolic, as many of the rulers retained substantial autonomy in their own regions.
- While Edgar may have claimed to be the overlord of the British Isles, the actual power of local rulers was maintained through their control of their territories and resources:
- Scotland: Continued to expand its influence under Kenneth II.
- Norse Isles: Remained a fiercely independent maritime power under Maccus.
- Wales: Fragmented into multiple small kingdoms, where rulers sought strategic alliances to balance local rivalries.
Symbolic event at Chester
Later Anglo-Norman accounts describe Edgar being rowed along the River Dee by the rulers as a symbolic act of submission. This scene likely emerged as a post-Conquest embellishment, drawing on earlier accounts of Edgar’s authority.
Interpretations of the meeting at Chester
AS Chronicle (973) - states that 6 kings came to Chester and pledged loyalty to Edgar
Alfric’s Life of St Swithun (992-1002) - mentions 8 kings submitting to Edgar on a single day
John of Worcester’s Chronicle (12thc) - identifies the 8 rulers, adds the rowing episode
William of Malmesbury’s Gesta Regum Anglorum (12thc) - emphasised Edgar’s role as overlord of Britain
Why was the location of the meeting at Chester notable?
Chester’s location, at the tidal limit of the River Dee, was a strategic choice, allowing access to both maritime and inland waterways. This ensured Edgar could project power over the Irish Sea and Wales
The rulers of the Isles and Strathclyde relied on their fleets to dominate the Irish Sea and maintain their autonomy. Their participation in Chester indicated mutual recognition of Edgar’s naval dominance.
What did the Dee rowing ritual mirror?
The Dee rowing ritual likely mirrored Carolingian and Ottonian practices, emphasizing symbolic overlordship without altering the actual autonomy of the participants
Origins and evolution of the kingdom of Strathclyde
- The kingdom of Strathclyde originated around Dumbarton Rock (Al Clut), a Brittonic-speaking stronghold on the north side of the River Clyde.
- In 870, Scandinavian forces captured Dumbarton Rock, leading to a southward shift in the kingdom’s center of gravity, with Govan emerging as a key political and ecclesiastical center.
Territorial expansion of Strathclyde
- By the late 9th or early 10th century, Strathclyde expanded southward into Cumbria, reaching as far as Penrith in modern-day Cumberland.
- The kingdom integrated diverse cultural and linguistic groups, including Brittonic, Norse, Gaelic, and English-speaking populations.
How did Strathclyde expand its authority?
- The kings of Strathclyde extended their authority through alliances and submissions from local elites, including Northumbrian and Gaelic-Scandinavian magnates.
- Coastal areas of the expanded kingdom were dominated by Norse-speaking chieftains who accepted loose overlordship from Strathclyde’s rulers, reflecting a balance of power rather than outright domination.
Strathclyde’s interaction with Northumbria
- The collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom in 867, following Viking incursions, created opportunities for Strathclyde’s expansion.
- Strathclyde took control of areas previously under Northumbrian influence, incorporating regions such as Carlisle and the Eden Valley.
Strathclyde’s interaction with Scotland
- Strathclyde had a complex relationship with the expanding kingdom of Alba (Scotland). While they were rivals for influence in the region, alliances and treaties were periodically formed.
- In 945, King Edmund of England ceded “Cumbra land” (Cumbria) to Máel Coluim I, King of Scots, on the condition that he act as Edmund’s ally on land and sea.
Strathclyde’s intercation with England
The royal meeting at the River Eamont in 927, attended by Athelstan of England, Constantine of Alba, and other rulers, likely involved Strathclyde’s representatives. This gathering reflected Strathclyde’s importance in regional diplomacy and power-sharing arrangements.
Geographical advantages of Strathclyde
- Strathclyde controlled critical routes such as the Roman roads through Annandale and the Eden Valley, which facilitated military movements and trade.
- The Clyde Valley’s fertile lands and access to the Irish Sea further enhanced the kingdom’s strategic significance.
Military activity of Strathclyde
Strathclyde’s rulers participated in regional conflicts and alliances, such as harboring the Dublin ruler Guðrøðr, who had been expelled by Athelstan.
Strathclyde’s transition to Cumbria
- By the mid-10th century, the kingdom of Strathclyde began to be referred to as “Cumbria” in contemporary sources, reflecting its expanded territory and evolving political identity.
- The transformation was marked by the use of terms such as terra Cumbrorum (land of the Cumbrians), with King Dyfnwal (Douenaldus) being a notable ruler during this period.
The decline of Strathclyde-Cumbria
- The kingdom gradually lost its autonomy, becoming subsumed under the influence of Alba and England by the late 11th century.
- The memory of Strathclyde lingered in historical texts, such as David I’s Inquest of the Cumbrian Region (12th century), which described the remnants of the kingdom’s lands and institutions.
How did Norse Dublin interact with surrounding Irish polities ?
- Scandinavian settlements were not purely antagonistic to Irish polities. Interaction included:
- Payment of tribute and economic exchange.
- Intermarriage and political alliances with Irish rulers, such as Donnchadh mac Domhnall Reamhair, who ruled Dublin and Leinster until his death in 1089.
- However, conflict was frequent. For instance, Scandinavian expansion displaced Irish tribes like the Deis Tuaiscirt near Limerick in 922
The role of towns in Norse expansion
- Scandinavian rulers used towns like Waterford and Limerick as bases for territorial expansion:
- Limerick’s Influence: The Norse controlled Tradraighe in Clare and markets at Thurles and Cashel, integrating inland resources into their trade networks.
- Waterford: Known for its cantred (territorial division) of Offath in the 13th century, the Norse influence extended west to Dungarvan.
In Cork, Norse settlers pushed out the native Ciarraighe Cuirche and worked closely with monasteries like St. Finbar’s to maintain economic and political control
What was the significant battle in the year 999?
Glenn Mama - - A decisive battle where Irish forces under Brian Boru defeated the Dublin Norse and their allies.
- This marked the beginning of Brian Boru’s consolidation of power over both Irish and Norse territories.
Architectural evidence of Norse cultural integration
- Norse settlers quickly adapted to Irish culture, creating a hybrid Hiberno-Scandinavian identity visible in:
- Architecture, such as the round towers at Clondalkin and Swords.
- Artifacts, including grave slabs from Rathdown, which combine Irish and Norse motifs.
What was the significance of the battle in the year 980?
Battle of Tara -
- Amlaib Cuaran (Olaf Cuaran)’s forces (Dublin Norse) vs Mael Sechnaill’s Irish army
Decisive Irish victory, marking the end of significant Norse political autonomy in Dublin
What was the significance of the battle in the year 868?
Battle of Killineer
- High King Aed Finnliath vs Viking-aligned forces led by Flann mac Conaing of Brega
- highlights the complex alliances between Irish rulers and Viking rulers
Examples of Norse-Irish alliances and intermarriage
- Amlaib Cuaran married Gormlaith, daughter of an Irish king, further intertwining Norse and Irish aristocracies.
- Gormlaith was also the mother of Sitric Silkbeard and later married Brian Boru and Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, reflecting strategic alliances across Norse and Irish factions
Power dynamics between Irish and Norse rulers
- Norse Advantage:
- Superior naval power allowed for swift raids and control of coastal territories.
- Fleets of up to 200 ships enabled the Norse to project military dominance, although they lacked the numbers to conquer large inland areas.
- Irish Resistance:
- Unlike in Anglo-Saxon England, the Irish successfully resisted large-scale Norse conquests, maintaining fragmented but effective regional defense strategies.
- The Battle of Clondalkin (867) exemplified local resistance, where a pincer movement by Irish forces destroyed a key Norse fort.
Chronology of early Viking activity in the Irish sea region
- Viking raids began as early as 794 in the Western Isles and Irish coasts, later transitioning to settlements. By 841, Vikings established permanent fortified bases (longphorts) at sites like Dublin, Annagassan, and Inber Dee (Wicklow).
- The capture of Dumbarton Rock in 870 by Olaf and Ívarr marked a major Norse victory. They returned to Dublin with “a huge prey of English, Britons, and Picts”, reinforcing their influence through the slave trade
Example of Viking urban centres as power bases
- Dublin, founded as a longphort in 841, evolved into a significant commercial hub. Despite frequent attacks and the temporary Viking expulsion in 902, it retained its role as the dominant urban center in the region.
- Waterford, uncovered during excavations in 2003, showcased a fortified settlement with a population of ~4,000, far surpassing even major Baltic trading centers like Birka
Hoard evidence of the Vikings introducing a bullion-based economy
Skaill Hoard (Orkney, 950): Held over 8kg of silver, including Anglo-Saxon coins and Islamic dirhams, signifying the integration of Norse settlements with global trade networks
Cuerdale Hoard (Lancashire): Contained over 40kg of silver and represented wealth flowing across the Irish Sea.
Examples of power struggles between irish kings and viking rulers
- The relationship between Irish kings and Viking leaders oscillated between warfare and collaboration:
- In 902, Dublin Vikings were expelled but returned in 917 under leaders like Ragnall ua Ímair.
- Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill decisively defeated the Norse at the Battle of Tara (980), marking a decline in Norse political dominance in Dublin
Evidence of Viking activity in the Isle of Man
- With its central position in the Irish Sea, the Isle of Man became a hub for Viking activity by the late 10th century:
- Douglas (Ballaquayle) Hoard (~970): Contained over 400 English pennies and more than 1kg of silver, indicating the island’s role as a wealth center.
- Manx rulers controlled key maritime routes, enabling them to extract wealth through trade and tribute
Evidence of viking activity in Scotland and Strathclyde
- In 870, Norse leaders Olaf and Ívarr laid siege to Dumbarton Rock, devastating the Brittonic kingdom of Strathclyde.
- Norse settlements in Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides provided bases for raiding mainland Scotland. However, Viking settlement on the Scottish mainland was limited to coastal strongholds
Evidence of Viking activity in Wales
- Viking raids on Wales intensified in the 9th century, targeting coastal regions like Anglesey and Dyfed. Scandinavian place-names along the southern Welsh coast reflect Norse influence.
- The hoard discovered at Llanbedrgoch (Anglesey) contained Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian coins, emphasizing Viking integration with broader European economies
Overview of Viking activity in Scotland
- Vikings established bases in Orkney, Shetland, the Hebrides, and the west coast by the early 9th century.
- By 839 AD, a major Viking force killed the Pictish king Eógan mac Óengusa and the Dalriadan king Áed mac Boanta, accelerating Norse dominance in the region.
872 - Harald Fairhair of Norway consolidated power, pushing many Norse chieftains westward. Orkney and Shetland became key bases for exiled Vikings, who raided Scotland and Ireland.
890-920 - Earl Sigurd’s expansion into mainland Scotland (conquered parts of Caithness and Moray)
1014 - Battle of Clontarf: Sigurd the Stout, Earl of Orkney, fought alongside the Norse-Gael leader Brian Boru but was killed, weakening Norse power.
Evidence of Viking influence in the Irish sea world (language and place names)
- Orkney and Shetland: Over 70% of place names have Norse origins (e.g., Tingwall, Firth, Papa Stour).
- Western Isles: Norse-Gaelic hybrids emerged, with names like Bhaltos (Valþjófsstaðr).
- Loanwords into Gaelic and Scots:
- Svenn (young man) → Scots swain
- Knörr (cargo ship) → Scots knarr
Evidence of the Christianisation of the Norse
- Christian Conversion (10th-12th Century):
- Olaf Tryggvason’s Mission (995 AD): Norwegian king sent missionaries to the Norse colonies in Scotland.
- Thorfinn the Mighty (1025-1065 AD): The Earl of Orkney was baptized and built the first Norse cathedral in Kirkwall.
- St. Magnus Cathedral (begun in 1137): A major symbol of Norse-Christian identity in Orkney.
