Theme 12: Religion Flashcards
Historiographical orthodoxy on late medieval religion
Historical debate - A.G. Dickens, Eamon Duffy
Historiographical orthodoxy - the reformation was rooted in centuries of popular discontent (priests frequently ill-educated, administrating to a lay community that resented ecclesiastical wealth, depended on Latin rites and rituals that the laity did not comprehend)
^ purgatory had a strong grip on popular consciousness
^^ high level of dissent, anti-clericalism and heresy
^^^ this model of late medieval religion was articulated by A.G. Dickens in ‘The English Reformation’
Revisionist view on late medieval religion
However, in the 90s, a revisionist school emerged - Eamon Duffy challenged this, arguing that Dickens was reading history backwards from the reformation, rather than examining late medieval religion in its own right
^ argued that Dickens was simply re-articulating a 16th century protestant critique of Catholicism
Duffy accepted that there were concerns about the quality of parish priests - however, argued that this was a mechanism to improve the quality of the priesthood
Contested the idea that late medieval parishioners did not understand what they were practicing
Argued that historians had given dissidents far too much attention and exaggerated the numbers
Lots of evidence that people gave voluntary gifts to local churches - suggested commitment to the church on a local level
Late medieval laity were not passive, they were shapers of religious life
Examples of material to educate priests
Priests were the key bridge between church and people - expected to administer sacraments and lead prayer
During the later middle ages, the church became particularly attentive to schooling priests - 14th and 15th century: flux of literature to teach priests (John Mirk’s ‘Instructions for Parish Priests’ written in Middle English)
^ Mirk’s ‘Festial’ - collection of sermons written in Middle English for use through the ecclesiastical year
What was used in churches to reinforce spoken messages?
Images, statues etc… reinforced spoken messages - e.g. Pew Finials in Blythburgh Church in Suffolk depicted the Seven Deadly Sins, Doom paintings in Wenhaston, Suffolk
Sources available to us to reconstruct lay belief
- wills - tell us how late medieval people prepared for death
- books of hours (prayer books) - standard liturgical texts that people can use to help them pray: many owners annotated theirs
- churchwardens’ accounts
- commonplace books
- church court records - give an incomplete picture as it records recusancy, priests’ failings etc…. (can be useful, but should be balanced against other records, as above)
The work of religion inmedieval England
Cannot take too narrow a view of what religion is for!!
The work of religion -
- Appeal to the saints: as intercessors in this world as well (as well as the next) and ‘present’ in relics and images.
- Apotropaic actions: invocations (e.g. Name of Jesus), gestures (e.g. making sign of the cross), sacramentals (e.g. sprinkling of holy water. Note: different to sacraments).
- The ritual year: the liturgy connected to agriculture and harvest: Plough Monday’s lights and blessings (January); processions with banners at Rogationtide against the Devil’s power.
- ^ theme of solidarity and community
How were the needs of the dead attended to in medieval religion
- Suffrages (helps to the soul in Purgatory): prayers, alms, masses.
- Commemorations as contexts for suffrages: Funeral, Week’s Mind, Month’s Mind, Obit (on the anniversary or the funeral).
- Gifts of objects to the parish church so dead are kept in mind: for example, inventories of Long Melford church, Suffolk, of 1529 and 1547 reveal many patens, chalices, sets of vestments etc. for use services (donated by parishioners).
- We can see in wills that testators wanted masses to be performed for their souls after death - chantries set up for this purpose
- ^e.g. Wakefield Bridge Chantry Chapel
- Celebrations of chantry masses central to medieval Oxbridge colleges
Evidence that provisions for the dead were not limited to the rich
Provision for all, including poorer parishioners’ souls:
- Name noted on the parish’s bede roll. (where they would be prayed for on a regular basis)
- Parish dead recalled by the ‘dead light’ or ‘All Souls Light’. (candle kept burning)
- Parishioners might provide for votive lights in their wills (at Morebath, Devon, some gifted hives of bees to finance them).
- A general commemoration: all the dead remembered at the Feast of All Souls on 2nd November.
^system skewed to the advantage of the rich? - yes, the rich did have more options to provide for their mortal souls, but they also needed to do more (’easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven’ - Matthew 19:24)
What is Galpern’s view on late medieval Christianity and is it strong?
A.N. Galpern - late medieval Christianity as a ‘cult of the living in the service of the dead’
- our perception of religious life skewed by the fact that we often rely on wills (written on the deathbed)
- the relationship between the living and the dead was not one-way: the dead also did things for the living - gave them property, endowed churches through provisions in wills etc…
- acceptance that the dead wanted to be remembered but also an acknowledgment that the dead were not going to be remembered forever - chantries ceased activities once money ran out for example
- ^ the weight of the dead lightened by pragmatism
To what extent did heresy exist?
Criticism, dissent and heresy did exist (growing literacy and expansion of knowledge about the faith meant that people could interrogate the contents of faith themselves)
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Langland’s The Vision of Piers Plowman created images of ecclesiastical corruption and failings
What values were at the core of Wyclif’s thought?
- Bible to be available in the vernacular.
- Criticism of devotional images.
- Questioning of Church teaching about the Eucharist, the saints, masses for the dead.
- Superiority of royal (rather than papal) authority.
Was Lollardy influential?
Ecclesiastical fear that heresy (Lollardy) was spreading like ‘the overwhelming multiplication of seedlings’ (Henry Knighton, chronicler, d. 1396). - this statement arguably derived from his fears rather than logic
Beliefs of Lollards sometimes incoherent and contradictory
Limited movement - gained traction amongst the ‘Lollard knights’ of Richard II’s court, some radical clergy, artisans, lawyers
How does Duffy refer to the laity’s relationship with the Church?
Also evidence of lay ‘invested-ness’ in the structures of what Duffy has called ‘traditional religion’, esp. at the parish level.
AND there is evidence of adaptability in the face of social and cultural change. - evidence that the Church was actually responsive to social change (e.g. responded to growing lay literacy by making available a body of texts that could be used for personal devotion)
A case study adaptability: late medieval mystics and their writings ….
- Anonymous, Cloud of Unknowing (later 14thc).
- Julian of Norwich (d. after 1416), Revelations of Divine Love.
^ discussed meditative encounters with Christ, which people could practice themselves - the Church tolerated this (saw that it could serve as an adjunct to belief rather than a challenge to it)
Was medieval Christianity flexible?
We should be alert to the flexibility and adaptability of late medieval Christianity
Late medieval Church as a ‘broad’ Church and the possibilities for diversity within orthodoxy (Mishtooni Bose and the concept of ‘polychromatic orthodoxy’ in the late Middle Ages - the idea that orthodoxy itself has elements of diversity within it)
Definitions of orthodoxy, heresy and heterodoxy
Orthodoxy = adherence to the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church
Heresy = rejection of doctrine
Heterodoxy is everything that lies between these extremes
Does heterodox practice act as evidence against the strength of the medieval church?
Heterodox practice can be proof of a fundamental vitality within the Church - the spectrum of belief does not necessarily point to flaws within the Church
^ e.g. saints - local saints grew in prominence —> the Church didn’t like this but did not stamp this out
Role of saints was to intercede - people wanted saints that they could relate to personally and who would relate to them/sympathise with them
Similar to political intercession of the House of Commons - reflects a fundamentally hierarchical society wherein peasants saw their place to be lower
^ no rejection of the fundamentality of intercession - orthodoxy of belief exists and manifests itself in heterodoxy of practice
e.g. of a sophisticated argument to make in an essay about orthodoxy
orthodoxy of belief exists and manifests itself as heterodoxy of practice
e.g. emergence of local saints - may not have been mandated by the Church but reflects a fundamental belief in the intercessory powers of saints (a key orthodox belief)
How can we use the example of saints to show that the Church met the needs of the laity?
What were the needs of the laity? - achieving salvation, solutions to their troubles in this life
The plethora of local saints reflects that the needs of the laity were being met as the laity were able to find saints that they could relate to personally with an eye to achieving intercession - the fact that the Church tolerated this shows that they saw this as important to meeting the needs of the laity (embraced some heterodox practice - the laity found fulfilment in what the Church was willing to offer them)
Other examples of the Church meeting the needs of the laity
Laity turn to the Church for comfort and support - Church functions as a social charity: local monastic communities provided healthcare, education etc….
Strengthening sense of community - e.g. pax-bread ceremony at mass (congregation offer each other pax-bread - fosters a sense of social cohesion) - also dispute resolution occurred through pax-bread offerings
Church offered comfort to families facing deaths
Orthodoxy in religious belief and liturgical practice
- The Eucharist and Transubstantiation: Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist was central to late medieval piety. The elaborate rituals surrounding Holy Week, such as the Palm Sunday procession and the veneration of the Easter Sepulchre, emphasized the doctrinal significance of Christ’s Passion and Resurrection. The Corpus Christi festival, during which the consecrated Host was carried through towns in a lavish procession, reinforced belief in the sacrament and Christ’s presence within the community.
- Lay Participation in Mass: Regular attendance at Sunday Mass, confession, and Easter communion was required by ecclesiastical law, but lay engagement extended far beyond these obligations. The laity demonstrated deep devotion to the Mass, evidenced by widespread donations for the maintenance of altars, the purchase of candles, and the commissioning of votive Masses. Margery Kempe’s account of attending Mass shows how deeply laypeople internalized and responded to its rituals, sometimes with intense emotional fervor.
The emotional and personal dimensions of lay piety
Beyond formal orthodoxy, religious belief was deeply personal and emotional. Devotional literature encouraged laypeople to engage affectively with Christ’s suffering, fostering a deeply internalized piety.
- Meditation on Christ’s Passion: The practice of imaginative meditation, popularized by works such as ‘Meditationes Vitae Christi’, encouraged worshippers to visualize Christ’s suffering as if they were present at the scene. Margery Kempe’s visions of Christ’s Passion during Holy Week services exemplify this heightened emotional devotion.
- Candlemas and the Power of Sacramentals: The blessing and use of candles at Candlemas reflected both doctrinally orthodox beliefs (associating Christ with light) and popular piety (belief in their protective power). Parishioners took these blessed candles home to use during storms and illness, showing how liturgical objects were imbued with personal spiritual significance.
- Guilds and Lay Religious Expression: Guilds played a crucial role in maintaining parish religious life, funding lights for the altars, and organizing processions. The Beverley Candlemas Guild, for instance, staged elaborate reenactments of the Presentation at the Temple, complete with a member impersonating the Virgin Mary. These guild activities reinforced orthodox religious themes but also allowed laypeople to take an active role in religious pageantry.
The integration of folk traditions and popular customs in the religious calendar
While religious practice was largely orthodox, elements of older folk traditions persisted, sometimes in tension with official Church teachings.
- Rituals with Pagan or Superstitious Origins: Some festival observances contained clear pre-Christian elements. The plough ceremonies at the beginning of the agricultural season, where young men dragged a plough through the village demanding offerings, were fertility rites that had been incorporated into the Christian calendar. Similarly, on St. Agnes’s Eve, young women engaged in divination rituals to learn the identity of their future husbands.
- Boy-Bishop and Carnival Festivities: Festivals such as the Boy-Bishop ceremonies, where children assumed clerical roles in a parodic inversion of authority, straddled the line between sanctioned Church observances and popular revelry. Clergy sometimes viewed these events with suspicion, as they could slip into irreverence.
- The Church’s Response to Folk Beliefs: While many of these customs were tolerated and even integrated into Christian festivals, clerical authorities were aware of the potential for superstition. Preachers warned against the improper use of sacramentals—such as using blessed candles in magic rituals—or the over-reliance on charms and relics.
How was religious belief intertwined with social hierarchy?
Religious belief was also deeply intertwined with social hierarchy, reinforcing local power structures and communal identities.
- Processions and Social Order: Public religious events, such as the Corpus Christi procession, served as both devotional acts and displays of civic and social hierarchy. Townspeople competed for positions of honor in these processions, sometimes leading to conflict, as seen in the Chester Corpus Christi riots of 1399. The Wife of Bath’s insistence on being the first to make her offering at church reflects the importance of religious rituals in asserting social status.
- Ritual as Social Control: The Church also used religious ceremonies to reinforce moral and social order. The elaborate Maundy Thursday foot-washing ritual, where rulers and clerics washed the feet of the poor, reinforced ideals of Christian humility while subtly reinforcing the hierarchical relationship between clergy and laity.
Examples of bequests for Church ornaments and liturgical objects
Laypeople commonly left gifts of church ornaments, candles, and vestments in their wills to enhance the beauty of religious worship. These bequests served both as acts of piety and as guarantees that prayers would be said for the donor’s soul.
- Ornaments and Vestments for Major Feasts: Many bequests explicitly stated that gifts should be used on “principall festes” (major feasts). For example, Beatrice Kirkemer, in 1509, left a set of prayer beads (rosary) to be hung on church images “on good dayes,” while Alice Carre, in 1523, donated coral beads specifically to adorn the image of St. Anne on her feast day.
- Seasonal and Festive Donations: Testators often left items that would visibly enhance the church during major celebrations. Some bequests ensured that extra music or bell ringing would occur on important feast days, emphasizing how laypeople sought to shape the liturgical experience even after their death.
Examples of bequests for the Easter sepulchre and holy week ceremonies
One of the most striking forms of lay religious investment was the funding and maintenance of the Easter Sepulchre, a structure used during Holy Week to commemorate Christ’s burial and resurrection.
- Lavish Easter Sepulchres: Some wealthy patrons paid for permanent stone Easter Sepulchres, like the one in St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, which was “well gilt with golde” and adorned with an image of the risen Christ, a model of Hell (with thirteen devils), four sleeping soldiers, and four painted angels with detachable wings.
- Humbler Contributions: Not all contributions were grand. Some parishioners left donations of wax candles to burn around the sepulchre from Good Friday to Easter morning. This was one of the most common lay benefactions, accessible to both the rich and the poor.
- Personal Burial Requests: Some testators sought to be buried as close as possible to the site of the Easter Sepulchre. Richard Clerke of Lincoln (1528) requested burial “in the quere nere to the place where the sepulchre usyth to stande,” linking his resting place with the most sacred moment of the liturgical year.
Lay participation in guilds and confraternities
Religious guilds were another way in which laypeople participated actively in their faith. These organizations helped maintain church lights, fund priests, and ensure prayers for deceased members.
- Resurrection and Corpus Christi Guilds: These guilds were particularly devoted to maintaining the Easter Sepulchre and funding Masses for the souls of deceased members. The Lincoln Resurrection Guild, for example, provided “thirteen square wax lights in stands” and “four angels and four banners of the passion” for funerals.
- Plough Guilds and Local Celebrations: In rural areas, guilds associated with Plough Monday festivities helped raise funds for parish needs while also incorporating older seasonal traditions into religious practice.
Funeral bequests and chantries
A significant part of lay religious practice involved making provisions for funeral rites, Masses for the dead, and the construction of chantries (small chapels where priests would say prayers for the deceased).
- Chantry Foundations: Wealthier testators often endowed chantries, ensuring that priests would say Mass for their souls in perpetuity. The Clopton family of Long Melford, for example, funded a chapel that played a key role in Palm Sunday processions, integrating personal piety with the wider communal liturgy.
- Humbler Bequests for Masses: Those with fewer resources still contributed, often requesting a set number of Masses after their death, known as Trentals (thirty Masses said over the course of a month). Such arrangements demonstrate a deep belief in intercessory prayer and purgatory.
The role of women in religious patronage
- Women’s Bequests to Images of Saints: Beatrice Kirkemer and Alice Carre (mentioned above) are good examples of women ensuring that their donations would enhance the church’s visual and devotional appeal. Many women also contributed altar cloths, bed-hangings repurposed as church drapery, and embroidered vestments.
- Female Guild Memberships: Women participated in guilds that provided for the maintenance of altar lights and funeral services, demonstrating their active role in shaping religious observance.
Catechesis and the standardisation of belief
The paternoster, Ave Maria and creed as core beliefs
The Lambeth Council
Confession
Explain the significance of the Lambeth council of 1281
Archbishop Pecham’s Ignorantia Sacerdotum mandated the teaching of Catholic doctrine in the vernacular four times a year. This program covered:
- The Ten Commandments
- Christ’s dual commandment to love God and neighbor
- The Seven Works of Mercy
- The Seven Virtues and Seven Vices
- The Seven Sacraments
This catechetical structure ensured a high level of theological orthodoxy among laypeople. It was adopted widely, revised into verse form by Archbishop Thoresby in 1357 (The Lay Folks’ Catechism), and remained in use until the Reformation.
Confession as a tool of catechesis (religious education of the laity)
The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) required annual confession, which reinforced doctrinal knowledge. Priests used confessions to examine penitents on:
- The Articles of the Creed
- Their ability to recite the Lord’s Prayer
- Knowledge of the Ten Commandments
Confessors were trained to interrogate penitents about the Seven Deadly Sins, ensuring that moral and doctrinal orthodoxy was upheld. William of Pagula’s Oculus Sacerdotis (early 14th century) was a widely used handbook that guided priests on how to examine parishioners.
Evidence of lay enthusiasm for preaching
Margery Kempe recorded that when a famous preacher visited King’s Lynn, the people came “running to hear the sermon”.
Religious performances as a tool to enforce orthodoxy
Public performances were a powerful means of reinforcing Catholic teaching.
- York’s Paternoster and Creed Plays:These dramas, staged by religious guilds, presented the elements of Catholic faith in a visual and memorable form.
- The Paternoster Play taught the Lord’s Prayer in relation to the Seven Deadly Sins and Seven Virtues.
- The Creed Play illustrated the Apostles’ Creed through dramatic reenactments.
- Corpus Christi plays reinforced the idea of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist
The Croxton Play of the Sacrament, for example, was explicitly designed to combat Lollard skepticism about the Eucharist.
Evidence of the laity’s devotion to communion
Exclusion from communion was a mark of social and religious disgrace—in 1530, a man denied communion at Little Plumstead went weeping into the churchyard, with his neighbors pleading for his reinstatement.
How was the Eucharist used as a mechanism for reinforcing social order?
- Moral Reconciliation Before Communion:
- Easter sermons emphasized that receiving communion required being at peace with one’s neighbors. Parishioners were expected to forgive those they had quarreled with.
- One standard sermon example tells of a wealthy woman forced by her priest to forgive a poor neighbor before receiving the Eucharist—when she insincerely pretended to forgive, she choked on the Host.
- Public Consequences of Non-Conformity:
- Those who refused to receive communion (such as suspected Lollards) were socially isolated.
- At All Saints, Bristol, taking communion was linked to payment of parish dues—defaulters were denied the sacrament, marking them as outsiders.
The ubiquity of saints in medieval England
- Saints were an integral part of everyday life, with their images found on objects such as drinking cups, household decorations, and, most prominently, in churches.
- Churches were filled with statues, paintings, and altarpieces dedicated to saints, each often accompanied by lamps and lights.
- Parishioners made bequests in their wills to maintain these images, fund Masses in their honor, and ensure the upkeep of the lamps that burned before them.
Regional and personal variations in the veneration of saints
- While all of England adhered to Catholic doctrine, devotion to specific saints varied regionally. Saints like Thomas Becket, Cuthbert, and Erasmus had localized followings.
- Some saints gained popularity over time, reflecting shifts in lay piety, but these changes occurred within the framework of orthodox Catholicism rather than outside it.
Does not indicate a break from orthodoxy, but a diversity of expression within the religion
The importance of death in late medieval religion
- Preoccupation with death: Historians like Johan Huizinga argued that the Middle Ages were dominated by a “memento mori” culture—constant reminders of death.
- Catholicism as a ‘cult of the living in the service of the dead’: The period was deeply invested in prayers for souls in Purgatory, believing in the efficacy of Masses and intercessions to reduce suffering in the afterlife.
- Death influenced Church organization and architecture: The increase in priestly ordinations was driven by the need for more Masses for the dead, leading to many priests without permanent benefices. Wealthy individuals invested in building and decorating churches as a form of posthumous spiritual insurance.
Examples of wealthy patrons’ commitment to securing prayers for their souls
Wealthy patrons built or decorated churches to secure prayers for their souls, as seen in East Anglian churches like Long Melford, Lavenham, and Blythburgh.
Religious beliefs about death
- Day of Doom imagery: Medieval sermons described Christ revealing his wounds and separating the righteous from the damned.
- Preparation for judgment: People sought Masses, indulgences, and charitable works to secure a favorable verdict at death.
- The role of clergy: Priests provided comfort with the image of the Crucifix, urging the dying to trust in Christ’s Passion for salvation.
- Popular manuals on how to die well: The Ars Moriendi (Art of Dying) became one of the most widely read texts, teaching both clergy and laity how to prepare for death.
The rise of the parish system
By the twelfth century, episcopal government expanded, and the Church placed greater emphasis on local parish priests. The Windsor Council of 1070 ordered bishops to appoint archdeacons to oversee church administration, ensuring that priests were properly trained and churches adequately supplied.
The strengthening of clerical control and education
- Establishment of Resident Clergy: Unlike the earlier system where priests traveled to various locations, the twelfth century saw the appointment of resident clergy in local parishes. Bishop Herbert of Norwich established a resident priest in Yarmouth to serve local fishermen, illustrating the move toward a more accessible clergy.
- Clerical Education and Training: By the thirteenth century, the emphasis on education led to the production of confessional manuals and sermon collections. These texts guided priests in their role as confessors, instructing them on how to evaluate sin and prescribe penance.
- Church Councils and Bureaucracy: The administrative capacity of bishops expanded significantly, with diocesan government growing in complexity. Archdeacons held assemblies, rural chapters were organized, and separate church courts became firmly established.
Example of bishops seeking to improve clerical standards
Bishop Grosseteste of Lincoln (1238–39) conducted an extensive visitation of his diocese, questioning both clergy and laity to ensure correct religious practice and discipline.
Example of community events rooted in pre-Christian tradition
Some festival observances appear to be based in pre-Christian traditions, such as the plough ceremonies that took place at the beginning of the agricultural season or St Agnes’s Eve, when young women would engage in divination (a clear contradiction to Church teaching). However, the fact that these were largely tolerated by clerical authorities (although some preachers did warn laypeople against superstitious practice) shows that observance of such festivals was not seen as a threat to genuine religious observance.
Example of community contributions to the observance of feast days
Wealthier churchgoers may have paid for Easter Sepulchres, such as in St Mary Redcliffe, where patrons sponsored the building of a sepulchre ‘well gilt with golde’. They might also have contributed to the observance of feast days: for example, Alice Carre donated coral beads to her parish church to adorn the image of St Anne on her feast day.
What did the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 require?
Annual attendance at confession
Counterargument to the point that there were systematic attempts by the Church to enforce religious orthodoxy
However, while laypeople were encouraged to memorise prayers and doctrinal texts, it is difficult to know whether they truly understood and believed in them or not. It is also unclear whether laypeople would have understood the nuances of Christian theology, or if they simply memorised the basic tenets of faith. The strength of this counterargument can be negated, however, by looking to the festivals and other community religious events described above, as these dramatizations and ceremonies would have made a deeper doctrinal understanding possible, even for the largely illiterate population.
Example of public displays of adherence to Lollardy
Nicholas Canon of Eye - in 1431, refused to kneel during the elevation of the host on Corpus Christi Day
Geographical limitations of the Lollard movement
Accusations of heresy concentrated in certain areas like Amersham, Coventry, Essex and Kent
What does G.W. Bernard say about Lollardy?
Labels it a ‘fringe movement’
Were measures against Lollardy effective?
1401 Statute of De Heretico Comburendo - allowed heretics to be burned at the stake
^ movement fell into obscurity by the late 15thc - shows harsh measures worked
The Church’s effort to enforce orthodoxy
- The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) established the requirement for annual confession and reception of the Eucharist at Easter, reinforcing the importance of clerical oversight in maintaining orthodox practice.
- Archbishop Pecham’s 1281 instructions mandated that priests instruct their flocks in the Creed, Ten Commandments, Paternoster, Ave Maria, the seven works of mercy, the seven deadly sins, the seven virtues, and the seven sacraments at least four times a year.
- The Sarum Use (liturgical standardization) was widely adopted across England by the fifteenth century, but local variations remained in York, Bangor, and Hereford.
Lay religious knowledge and understanding
- While the Church set clear doctrinal expectations, lay knowledge of Christian theology varied significantly.
- Religious instruction was largely informal, as there were no Sunday schools or catechisms before the Reformation.
- The liturgy played a central role in lay understanding of Christianity, as church attendance was compulsory for all over the age of fourteen.
- Evidence from parish records and inventories suggests a high level of commitment to orthodox worship, with nearly all churches possessing the necessary service books and sacramental objects.
- Some laypeople memorized prayers and doctrinal texts, but there is debate over whether they truly understood them or simply repeated them by rote.
Popular piety and its potential for divergence
- The Cult of the Virgin Mary took various forms, illustrating both the diversity and flexibility within orthodox belief.
- Pilgrimages and relic veneration were widespread but were sometimes criticized for encouraging superstition rather than true faith.
- The mass was central to worship, with the elevation of the host being the most significant moment for the laity, though theological nuances such as transubstantiation may have been poorly understood.
- Mystery plays performed in towns such as York and Chester were both educational and theatrical, reinforcing Christian narratives but also leaving room for local interpretations.
Local traditions and alternative practices
- Many religious activities were not officially regulated by the Church, such as confraternities, which developed independently.
- Some lay religious practices, such as the veneration of certain relics and pilgrimage sites, were locally developed rather than doctrinally mandated.
- While official Church doctrine emphasized liturgical uniformity, regional variations in religious practice persisted, particularly in the interpretation of indulgences and the role of intercessory prayers.
- The Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe, rejected certain orthodox beliefs, such as transubstantiation and the veneration of saints, showing that alternative religious views existed alongside mainstream orthodoxy.
Examples of local pilgrimage sites and unofficial saints
- Buckinghamshire had relics of St. Rumwold, a rood at Wendover, and images of Our Lady at multiple sites.
- In Devon and Cornwall, several local shrines attracted pilgrims, including an image at Looe that drew a hundred pilgrims in a single feast-day.
- The shrine of John Schorn at Marston and the holy blood relic at Ashridge were particularly popular among lay worshippers.
- Parish churches also contained revered objects, such as an image of Our Lady at Bradwell, where offerings were made.
- Unofficial local cults developed, as in Morebath, where a new priest gifted the parish a statue of St. Sidwell, and the altar soon became adorned with candles and bequests.
Superstition, magic and semi-religious practices
Many popular religious practices bordered on magic, blending Christian belief with older folk traditions:
- Some medieval bishops condemned “superstitious” practices, which included local cults and unauthorized veneration of saints.
- The host (Eucharist) was sometimes believed to have magical qualities, particularly in healing rituals.
- Relics were often treated as objects of supernatural power, as seen in Henry VII’s queen hiring Our Lady’s girdle during pregnancy for protection.
- The distinction between magic and miracles was often unclear. For example, certain saints’ relics or roods were thought to work miracles, sometimes elevating their physical presence over the theological importance of Christ’s sacrifice.
While such beliefs might be considered distortions of orthodoxy, they were not entirely separate from mainstream Christianity—they represented an intersection of faith, folk custom, and the desire for tangible spiritual experiences.
Religious plays and folk traditions
Religious education was often informal, and popular mystery plays were a key means of reinforcing Christian narratives:
- Large-scale mystery plays were staged in York, Chester, Coventry, Ipswich, Beverley, Norwich, and Wakefield, presenting biblical stories in ways accessible to the laity.
- Smaller, parish-based religious performances often focused on local saints or cults, reinforcing community religious identity.
- Some plays were used to criticize unorthodox or superstitious practices, such as the Corpus Christi plays in York, which may have aimed to curb excessive devotion to relics.
Despite their entertainment value, these dramatizations reinforced doctrinal teaching while also accommodating regional religious customs.
Examples of regional liturgical variations
Regional liturgical variations: Before 1543, England lacked a unified rite, with different dioceses following the Sarum, Hereford, Bangor, and York uses.
Limited influence of Lollardy
- Lollardy had significantly declined by the late 15th and early 16th centuries. By the 1520s, there was little evidence of new intellectual or theological development within the movement.
- Heresy trials show very limited dissent, with only a small number of people accused across the country. Many of those who were investigated abjured their beliefs and performed penance.
Many heretics did not see themselves as outside the Church, continuing to participate in its rituals and sacraments.
Religious dissent pre-14thc
- Prior to the late 14th century, England had very few instances of religious dissent.
- There were only around 45 recorded cases of heresy in two centuries, suggesting that challenges to orthodoxy were rare before the emergence of Lollardy.
- Unlike some continental movements (e.g., the Cathars or the Waldensians), there was no major organized heretical movement in England.
Lollardy in the late 14th and early 15thc
- Initially, Lollardy gained some noble and gentry support, particularly among knights at Richard II’s court in the 1390s.
- However, this support was short-lived. The movement faced suppression from Henry IV (reigned 1399–1413) and Henry V (reigned 1413–1422).
- The Statute of De Heretico Comburendo (1401) allowed heretics to be burned at the stake, leading to the execution of William Sawtry, the first English heretic to be burned.
- The Oldcastle Revolt of 1414, led by Sir John Oldcastle, further discredited Lollardy by associating it with rebellion.
Early Lollard support from the gentry and aristocracy
- Initially, Lollardy had some potential to gain influence among England’s ruling classes. Wyclif himself had enjoyed favor at Court in the 1370s, particularly under the protection of John of Gaunt.
- A group known as the “Lollard knights” played a significant role in spreading the movement’s doctrines. However, this aristocratic support dwindled over time.
- By 1414, some gentlemen were still involved, but overall, the gentry did not fully embrace Lollardy.
After the failed Oldcastle Rising (a 1414 Lollard-led rebellion), gentry support for Lollardy disappeared almost entirely. No knights and very few gentlemen were identified as Lollards after this event.
Lollardy’s limited reach among the lower classes
- Lollardy’s emphasis on reading the Bible in English required literacy, making it inaccessible to the poorest sections of society.
- Over time, the movement’s social reach narrowed:
- Early on, it had some elite support.
- Later, it became mostly confined to artisans, merchants, and clergy.
- Few laborers or servants were involved, and those who were likely followed their employers.
In Essex, out of 67 recorded Lollards, nearly all were craftsmen or clergy. There were no laborers, except for 8 pardoned after Cade’s Rebellion (1450), whose identification as Lollards is doubtful.
Why did Lollardy fail to become a united movement?
Unlike later religious movements such as Hussitism (Bohemia) or Lutheranism (Germany), Lollardy lacked strong unifying rituals or symbols.
Lollardy offered little in the way of symbolic acts, aside from the English Bible, which was of limited use in a largely illiterate society.
Why is the ‘Lollard knights’ case a weak argument to suggest that Lollardy was an influential movement?
- Displayed traditional Catholic beliefs, including a belief in intercession after death.
- Died on pilgrimage or crusade, which contradicts Lollard opposition to these practices.
- Later recanted their Lollard views (e.g., Sturry and Clifford).
