Theme 6: Kingship and Crises Flashcards
Brief summary of politics by the late 14thc
advanced administrative apparatus (but kingship key to success or failure of government), nobility were the king’s chief counsellors and local lieutenants, backdrop of the Hundred Years War (but MUST also meet domestic responsibilities)
^ precedent of Edward II’s deposition (but did not make another deposition more likely)
Context of the crisis of 1376
- Resumption of HYW in 1369 - English on back foot
- Repeated taxation to fund failures in war effort, financial mismanagement
- Both king and heir fell seriously ill (1376 - death of the Black Prince)
- Gaunt sought to fill void, but was a controversial figure (his wealth and power was resented by many other courtiers and his association with the Lollard leader John Wycliffe creates suspicion)
- Edward III’s associated suspected of exploiting the elderly king
- Trigger: parliament meets in 1376 to consider request for new taxation
Summary of the Good Parliament and its aftermath
the Commons refused to assent to new taxation until its grievances were addressed, able to secure the impeachment and removal of several ministers (e.g. Lord Latimer)
^ gains short-lived - Gaunt reversed this in late 1376/early 1377 (in the ‘Bad Parliament’ - also introduced a new form of taxation to fund the war effort: Poll Tax)
No long-term consequences for royal authority, but further development of semi-independent role of Commons in politics
4 periods in the reign of Richard II
- 1377-81: Minority
- 1381-88: Aggressive personal rule
- 1389-97: More ‘conciliar’ rule?
- 1397-99: Tyranny
Two interpretations of Richard II
An unlucky king who recovered after his early mistakes and did not deserve his fate in 1399
A king who posed a serious threat to his subjects throughout his reign
Summary of the first period of Richard II’s reign (minority)
- Unofficial minority - government dominated by chief noblemen and royal uncles, esp. Gaunt
- Principal political problem continued to be failure in war
- Popular discontent erupted in 1381 Peasants’ Revolt (Poll Tax - everybody in society has to pay a certain amount)
- Profound impact on 14-year-old king, has seen government failing, is determined to take control
Summary of the second period of Richard II’s reign (aggressive personal rule)
- King subjected to restraint almost immediately (measures passed restricting his freedom of action, tutors imposed on him) - unclear exactly why
- Richard reacted - built household clique of favourites as alternative nobility, bestowed offices and grants on them (deliberately seeking to bypass established nobility)
- Sought to exclude established nobility from central and local government, even encouraged plots against them (principal victim of this = John of Gaunt who has several plots to murder him)
- Those appointed were overburdened, underqualified, often inept and lacked experience for roles
- Result was systematic failure of government, locally and nationally
- King ignored growing foreign policy crises until too late (by 1385, the French had managed to consolidate their position so thoroughly, that they began to pose an existential threat to England - fleet waiting in the Channel to invade)
Explain the noble backlash to Richard II’s aggressive personal rule
first attempt at formal restraint in parliament of 1386 (impeachment of chancellor), imposition of commission of government. Richard withdrew consent, went off on ‘gyration’, acquiring legal and military means to confront his critics (gives out badges, amassing a private army)
How did the period of aggressive personal rule in Richard II’s reign come to an end?
Formation of Appellants - armed confrontation and defeat of Ricardian force at Radcot Bridge in December 1387.
Victorious Appellants march on London - Richard deposed and then restored - appellants used Merciless Parliament of 1388 to purge household
Summary of the third period of Richard II’s reign (more conciliar rule)
- Council meeting in May 1389: Richard retook control of government
- Following years saw apparent reconciliation with some (not all) major noblemen, e.g. Gaunt
- Relative absence of political crises (isolation of the Appellants)
1393 - Richard’s own tenants in Chester rebel (evidence he fostered this rebellion himself to undermine the Earl of Gloucester and Gaunt)
1390s - Richard pursues peace (1396 - 28 Year truce), realised that the key cause of political contention in the previous decade had been the war
Attempt to solidify local rule - recruitment and deployment of ‘royal affinity’, attempts to control local government offices (policy provoked disorder in many localities - e.g. in the West Midlands, where he acted against the Earl of Warwick)
Summary of the fourth period of Richard II’s reign (tyranny and deposition)
- Arundel, Gloucester and Warwick were arrested and prosecuted at ‘Revenge Parliament’ 1397 - executed, murdered and imprisoned
- Lands seized and used to reward associates or kept as royal lands
- Royal bodyguard, the law and parliamentary commission used to enforce royal rule
- 1398: Bolingbroke and Mowbray exiled; Gaunt dies in 1399 and Richard seized the Lancastrian inheritance
- Bolingbroke returned whilst Richard is in Ireland and received widespread support. Richard captured, forced to agree to abdicate, then formally deposed
Different interpretations of Henry IV’s reign
A ‘bungler’ whose sole achievement was to survive and pass the throne to his much more able son (McFarlane)
A monarch who shows how ‘easy’ it was to be king if you avoid key mistakes (Carpenter)
Challenges and responses in Henry IV’s reign
- Government in crisis following tyranny and deposition of Richard II - Richard II murdered
- Depleted nobility, cannot rule easily through normal means - rewarded key supporters and rules through them (’Lancastrian family government’)
- The war - notable successes: defeat of Epiphany Rising, defeat of the Scots at Homildon Hill 1402
- Welsh rebellion within one year of accession - could not bring Wales under control
Brief explanation of rebellions Henry IV faced
Rebellion and survival - numerous Percy grievances led to rebellion in 1403; further rebellions by family in 1405 and 1408
^ first 2 rebellions far more serious, esp 1403, which is only resolved through battle (but all rebellions defeated - Henry continued his policy of ‘family government’ (also supports heirs of older families - pragmatism) and endowment of key noblemen to replace rebels)
^ pragmatically accepted imposition of conciliar rule in 1407 to help resolve financial problems (antithesis to RII - his subjects are able to criticise him and he worked with them to reach a solution)
Brief overview of Henry V’s reign
- effective king - strong political agenda, rebalancing of the polity, foreign policy, law and order (links to Edward III)
- Agincourt - extraordinary victory against the odds, judgement by God, Lancastrian dynasty unassailable to the throne
- left a powerful political inheritance (it was maintainable if there was an able king and great deal of political momentum. *Moderate horizons in what was sustainable - in the long term the English could not maintain their control over France, but the question was how long it would take for control to lapse - good prospects in 1422
20thc interpretations of Henry VI
- imbecility (*intellectually and potentially physically disabled)
- wilfully malicious (*nonsense view)
- absence of royal will - fundamental inability to make decisions
Evidence of Henry VI’s incompetence
- easily manipulated
- lack of basic political comprehension - said that he wished to become a monk, did not understand the depth of his role
- financial incompetence - even in what he was actively engaged in e.g. Eton College and King’s College Chapel
- Treason trials against those who labelled the king as an ‘idiot’
Contemporaries were concerned with Henry’s ability to rule - granting competing offices (e.g. Grey/Franhope)
How did the nobles initially try to address Henry VI’s unsuitability to rule?
Minority re-imposed through the creation of conciliar government
Suffolk placed inside the household to make decisions for the king, but it would look as though decisions came from Henry. Extensive support from nobles just struggled to control courtiers - corruption emerged. Suffolk’s war policy was ineffective - demoted York and promoted Somerset who lost Normandy (catastrophe - caused Henry VI to break down)
Summary of events after Suffolk’s period of dominance
York found himself in a very powerful position as protector - government began to function more effectively, and York himself was in a position of legitimate authority.
1454 - Henry VI recovered
^ uncertain how Somerset came back to power, York no longer in power
1455 - Battle of St Albans - York and the Nevilles struck against Somerset who was moving against them, set out to assassinate him and his associates. Captured the king and established a second (completely illegitimate) protectorate - couldn’t maintain control
^ Somerset killed, with Margaret of Anjou acting as his successor (drove York from power, resisted attempts for a settlement with York by the nobles)
York lacked political judgement - attempted to take the throne inn 1460 - rejected by the nobility.
Death of York and the 1460 Battle of Wakefield - Edward earl of March emerged as the Yorkist champion and claimant to the throne
Summary of Edward IV’s reign
- Battle of Towton - biggest and bloodiest battle to ever be fought on English soil
- Common law commissions used to restore order
- Military activity against Lancastrians or conciliation with ones who could be brought back under his control
- Appointed powerful regional lieutenants (’lieutenant kings’) in the localities
- Retaining the gentry directly
- Internal York arguments after the Lancastrian defeat - loss of common enemy. Disputes with Warwick over the king’s marriage and foreign policy
Extended crisis 1469-71 - Edward captured but was able to flee. Clarence and Warwick reinstated Henry VI as king
Barnet and Tewkesbury - Edward defeated the Lancastrians, little resistance when he returned
Clarence executed, Warwick killed at Barnet
What do the Wars of the Roses tell us about late medieval politics?
- fundamentally the polity wanted good government
- leader needed to be intelligent, diligent, hardworking and able to work with others
- defence - internal and external - needed defence policies and strong law and order
- internal crisis resulted from foreign policy failures (loss of Normandy)
- kings only ousted when the king on the throne threatened even worse disaster - instinct was to damp down disorder
Summary of the ‘Merciless Parliament’
1388 - The “Merciless Parliament” led by the Lords Appellant (notably Gloucester and Arundel) executed Richard’s close allies, including Robert de Vere and Simon Burley. This act marked the peak of noble control over the king
What did Richard II do in 1389?
Richard, aged 22, declared his majority and resumed control. He reconciled with John of Gaunt, restoring his lands and creating him Duke of Aquitaine for life
How and when did Richard II strike back at the Lords Appellant?
- 1397:
- Richard struck back at the Lords Appellant:
- Gloucester was arrested and possibly murdered in captivity.
- Arundel was executed for treason.
- Warwick was imprisoned after confessing to sedition
- Richard struck back at the Lords Appellant:
Phases of the wars of the roses
The first phase (1455-71)
The Yorkist triumph
Richard III and the fall of York
Summarise the first phase of the wars of the roses
- 1455: The First Battle of St Albans initiated the conflict between Lancaster and York, with Richard, Duke of York, defeating Lancastrian forces.
- 1460: Richard of York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield, but his son Edward continued the Yorkist cause.
- 1461: Edward IV claimed the throne after a decisive Yorkist victory at the Battle of Towton, where an estimated 28,000 men were killed.
- 1464–1465:
- Battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham further diminished Lancastrian resistance.
- Henry VI was captured and imprisoned.
- 1471: Edward IV reclaimed the throne, defeating Warwick at Barnet and Lancastrians at Tewkesbury, where Prince Edward of Lancaster was killed.
Summarise the Yorkist triumph phase of the wars of the roses
- 1475: Edward IV signed the Treaty of Picquigny with France, securing an annual pension of 50,000 crowns.
- Edward strengthened royal finances by improving tax collection and securing foreign alliances through marriage.
Summarise the fall of York phase of the wars of the roses
- 1483:
- Edward IV’s sudden death left his 12-year-old son, Edward V, vulnerable.
- Richard, Duke of Gloucester, declared Edward illegitimate, assumed power as Protector, and later usurped the throne.
- The Princes in the Tower (Edward V and his brother) were likely murdered during Richard’s reign.
- 1485:
- Richard III was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field by Henry Tudor (Henry VII), marking the end of Yorkist rule and beginning the Tudor dynasty.
WotR casualties in key battles
- Towton (1461): Estimated 28,000 deaths.
- Barnet (1471): Approximately 4,000 deaths.
- Bosworth Field (1485): Richard III’s forces were decimated.
Example of Edward IV strengthening royal finances
Edward IV’s Treaty of Picquigny (1475) brought financial stability, providing a French pension of 50,000 crowns annually.
Example of judicial and administrative reforms during the wars of the roses
Richard III introduced measures to assist the poor in accessing justice, leading to the establishment of the Court of Requests
Helen Castor’s argument in ‘The King, the Crown, and the Duchy of Lancaster’
the coexistence of the king’s public authority and private lordship shaped governance
^ When Henry IV ascended to the throne in 1399, he declared that the Duchy of Lancaster would remain a private possession, separate from the royal crown. This distinction ensured the Duchy remained legally tied to the king’s personal (natural) body rather than the public (political) body of the monarchy.
- This concept highlights the dual identity of the monarch as both a mortal individual (body natural) and the embodiment of public authority (body politic).
- The separation of the Duchy from the crown’s public assets exemplifies this duality, allowing the monarch to act as a territorial magnate within the broader framework of royal governance.
Challenges inherited by Henry V
Richard II’s governance led to factional divisions among the nobility, with significant feuds and political vendettas. - The deposition of Richard II and the usurpation by Henry IV deepened these divisions, as displaced Ricardian loyalists harbored grievances against the Lancastrians.
Henry IV faced continuous challenges to his rule from factions such as the Percies and Ricardian loyalists.
Henry V’s approaches to magnates
Reconciliation and restoration
Service and reward
Firm governance
Henry V’s approaches to magnates (reconciliation and restoration)
- Policy of Amnesty: Henry V sought to reconcile noble families previously hostile to Lancastrians.
- Restoration of Lands and Titles:
- Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, was freed from custody, restored to his estates, and allowed to marry freely.
- Other heirs, like Thomas Montague (Earl of Salisbury) and John Holland (restored Earl of Huntingdon), were brought back into royal favor.
- Dynastic Marriages: Strategic marriages, such as Henry Percy’s marriage into the Neville family, were encouraged to strengthen alliances.
Henry V’s approaches to magnates (service and reward)
- Henry provided opportunities for magnates to serve in war, offering rewards in the form of restored estates, annuities, or military honors.
- The nobility was integrated into campaigns, including Agincourt, fostering loyalty and camaraderie through shared military success.
Henry V’s approaches to magnates (firm governance)
- Henry was decisive and measured in dealing with rebellion or treachery. For example:
- The Southampton Plot of 1415 was swiftly suppressed, with key conspirators executed.
- Henry used legal doctrines like the corruption of blood to control inheritances and maintain authority over rebellious families.
- The crown retained control of forfeited estates and wardships, avoiding overgenerosity in distributing rewards.
How did Henry V enforce royal authority?
- Henry V was firm in curbing lawlessness among the nobility, suppressing private feuds and self-help practices.
- He mediated disputes, as seen in the Berkeley inheritance case, to uphold royal justice and assert his authority.
Why was Henry V’s leadership style so successful?
- Henry’s personal magnetism and adherence to chivalric ideals made him a model leader.
- His ability to inspire confidence and loyalty was central to his success in managing magnates.
- While asserting the prerogatives of the crown, Henry recognized the rights and interests of his magnates, fostering cooperation rather than antagonism.
- His approach avoided favoritism, focusing instead on merit and service.
Why was Henry V so focused on strong law and order?
An essential prerequisite to re-opening the war in France was the restoration of law and order domestically (he knew of the dangers of leaving an unstable realm unsupervised - as a boy he had accompanied Richard II on his expedition to Ireland in 1399, which had given Henry Bolingbroke time to slip into England and usurp the throne)
At HV’s first parliament in 1413, the Commons complained about his father’s failure to restore law and order
Examples of Henry V’s actions to enforce strong law and order
Important legislative measures were enacted, accompanied by a series of special judicial commissions throughout the country - e.g. the court of king’s bench, which had remained stationary at Westminster throughout Henry IV’s reign, followed parliament to Leicester in 1414 (held sessions in Leicestershire, Shropshire and Staffordshire)
Special commissions were sent into Yorkshire, Devon, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire
^ reflects general surge in judicial activity
May 1413 parliament - Statute of Additions enacted to support the work of sheriffs
Early summer of 1413 - commissions of oyer and terminer were appointed for North and South Wales
Henry revived the use of the court of king’s bench as a travelling court for the suppression of local disorders - in Shropshire and Staffordshire alone, the court issued 1,800 indictments
How did Henry V respond to the Lollard threat?
Rising of the Lollards led by Sir John Oldcastle in 1414 - effectively crushed by Henry V (those involved were captured or killed and the next day a commission of oyer and terminer was appointed to deal with the rebels in London and Middlesex)
^ no great threat to Henry’s throne (poorly organised)
^^ it was suppressed so effectively that it drove Lollardy underground
Example of Henry V being unable to enforce uniform law and order
Incident in Devonshire in Feb 1414 - an oyer and terminer commission had been dispatched to Devon to investigate allegations of piracy and counterfeit coins: the local community obstructed the justices’ investigations, and so the commission was unsuccessful
Was Henry V’s law and order policy successful?
Henry’s programme of law enforcement was successful - no major disorder in the realm during his long absences abroad between 1415-22
^ some incidents of unrest - e.g. in 1417, parliament saw fit to submit a petition against armed bands (in response to alleged incidents of Lollards and rebels attempting to break into private forests and parks)
County community vs magnate affinity
- County as a Community:
- Shires often had a historic identity reinforced by judicial and peacekeeping institutions.
- Some historians argue that counties were political entities, with local elites forming networks of mutual support and governance.
- County courts, peace sessions, and parliamentary elections provided venues for political engagement, albeit irregularly.
- Magnate Affinity as a Structure:
- Others argue that political structure at the local level was primarily defined by magnate affinities—networks of lords and their retainers.
- Affinities were held together by formal contracts (indentures) and informal ties like annuities, livery, and shared loyalties.
- The influence of a magnate depended on the size and loyalty of his affinity, as well as his ability to balance interests within the local community.
Mechanisms of magnate affinity
Indentures of retainer legally bound a retainer to serve his lord in peace and war in exchange for rewards like fees, land, or legal protection.
Lords used livery (e.g., badges, collars) as visible symbols of loyalty and protection, but misuse led to legislative restrictions.
Magnate affinity as a source of instability
- Affinities could monopolize local offices and provoke resentment among excluded elites.
- Internal disputes within an affinity, or between rival affinities, could destabilize local society.
- Case Studies:
- John of Gaunt’s retainers in the North Midlands were involved in extensive feuds, requiring royal intervention to restore order.
- The monopoly of shire offices by magnates like the Earl of Suffolk in East Anglia provoked widespread unrest.
Which issues plagued Henry VI’s early reign?
- Overgenerous patronage: Distribution of lands and titles without strategic intent undermined royal finances and alienated nobility.
- Lack of political acumen: Chroniclers often described Henry as “saintly” but politically disengaged or indecisive
- 1449–1450: England suffered critical losses in France, including the fall of Normandy, leading to public outrage and political crises.
- 1450: Jack Cade’s Rebellion reflected popular frustration with corruption, taxation, and mismanagement. Cade’s rebels briefly occupied London before being suppressed
What happened to Henry VI in 1453?
1453: Henry VI suffered his first bout of mental illness, leaving him incapacitated for over a year. This led to Richard, Duke of York, being appointed Protector of the Realm.
- 1454: During York’s protectorship, the king’s incapacity deepened factional rivalries between the Yorkists (led by Richard) and Lancastrians (led by Margaret of Anjou and loyalists like the Duke of Somerset)
Key battles of the WotR
- 1455: The First Battle of St Albans marked the beginning of open conflict. Yorkist forces defeated the Lancastrians, killing key figures like the Duke of Somerset.
- 1460: Richard, Duke of York, was killed at the Battle of Wakefield. His son, Edward, continued the Yorkist cause.
- 1461: Edward IV won the decisive Battle of Towton, the bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses, with an estimated 28,000 casualties, securing the throne for the Yorkists.
1471: Edward reclaimed the throne after defeating Lancastrian forces at the Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, where Henry VI’s son, Edward of Westminster, was killed. Henry VI was likely murdered shortly after in the Tower of London
What is R. Horrox’s argument about the nature of depositions of kings?
The fact that the king was deposed is actually an argument that royal authority was being preserved - the nobles had the option to place the king under restraint to make him a better ruler. However, this was not a real option as a king under restraint was not a king at all. Therefore, deposition preserved royal authority by ensuring that the throne was held by a real unrestrained king.
What is Wolffe’s view of political instability in this period?
Historian Wolffe argued that the nobility in the reign of Henry VI were victims (rather than exploiters of the king) - as Henry failed to do his job so profoundly, the nobles had to defend their own interests in the absence of any central authority to do so for them
(counterarg) Some nobles did act in their own self interests (while publicly appealing to a higher good) - Richard, duke of York and his son Richard, duke of Gloucester did this, but importantly were not met with universal acceptance
The king also was known to act with hostility towards individual nobles (rather than the nobility as a whole) - e.g, Richard II had an extremely tumultuous relationship with his uncle, Thomas of Woodstock
Different interpretations of the role of the king in the 15thc
Sir John Fortescue - the role of the king was to maintain peace both outward and inward
William Worcester - foreign war could make up for failings at home (not very convincing?)
^ Henry V - huge success in foreign war, but still had fractured relationships with nobility at home
^ Richard II - successful campaign in Ireland in 1394-5, but this did not stop his relationships with the nobles breaking down so badly it led to his deposition
What was the state of law and order in the fifteenth century?
Fifteenth century saw a rise in lawlessness - e.g 1474 parliamentary petition concerning the breakdown of law and order in Hertfordshire and Shropshire described how murders, rapes, thefts and the like were becoming daily occurrences
What does M.C. Carpenter argue about the nature of depositions of English kings?
No medieval king (other than being killed in battle) was ever murdered before he had ceased to be a king, i.e. had been formally deposed
Took over 100 years for magnates to move from their first attempt at imposing formal checks on the king’s power (Magna Carta in 1215) to outright removing a king (Edward II in 1327)
Examples of royal rights of taxation being recognised
Royal rights of taxation had developed and were well-recognised - between 1294-7 Edward I took £150,000 from the clergy and £200,000 from the laity in taxation
Potential issues with a king being at the heart of a centralised system
- a ruler could over-use his powers, seizing property, overriding the law or using that law as a weapon (this is what Richard II had done, leading to his deposition, and what John had done, leading to limits being placed upon his powers)
- ^ Edward I reflected a less threatening version of this type of king with his extortionate taxation, but he had other values that made up for this
- an under-powerful king might fail to keep the peace internally or to defend the country against external threats (Henry VI’s incompetence brought about a great deal of instability - he was unable to govern effectively and lost much of England’s possessions in France)
- example of weak kingship facilitating external threat - Scottish raids into England reaching as far as Yorkshire after Edward II’s disastrous defeat at Bannockburn
- weak kings (like Henry VI, Edward II or Henry III) might listen to poor advice - led to expensive mistakes
- they might also allow their favourites to exploit the system to their own advantage - e.g. Edward II allowed the Despensers to use the law as a weapon against their enemies
The centralisation of governmental mechanisms meant that the country simply could not function in the absence of a competent king
What does Carpenter imply about the timing of royal depositions?
Carpenter argues that it is no coincidence that the first deposition of a king was in the immediate aftermath of Edward I’s reign, as Edward had extended monarchical powers to their peak - in particular, he had made the king’s power over the law so great that it would be devastating for his subjects if said power was abused
Why, according to Carpenter, did nobles resort to deposition?
Problems arose when a king was incompetent or tyrannical - as the apparatus of government depended on him so heavily, to weaken the king’s power risked creating further instability
^ imposing a council or protectorate was unlikely to work - e.g. Richard of York’s protectorates of 1454-56 were entirely legitimate and sanctioned by parliament, but several magnates simply refused to acknowledge his authority
^^ when the duke of Suffolk took on a leading role during one of Henry VI’s periods of incapacity, he ended up being impeached in parliament for his encroachment of the royal power
It was incredibly difficult for magnates to win any confrontation with a monarch without resorting to deposition
What does Maurice Keen argue about the nature of political crises in the late 14th/15thc?
Maurice Keen argues that these crises, although not unprecedented, were of unusual severity, particularly the deposition of Richard II, which created lasting dynastic insecurity.
Economic challenges facing late medieval kings
- A decline in wool exports and a shift towards the cloth trade reduced indirect tax revenue.
- Direct taxation became increasingly important, with 35.3 lay subsidies granted between 1377-1422, almost twice the rate of 1336-1377.
- Historian’s view: Some argue that the crown was financially weak, but Gillingham counters that no English king ever went bankrupt—successful governance depended on political skill rather than financial solvency.
The growing role of the Commons in the late 14th/15thc
- The Good Parliament of 1376 introduced impeachment to hold royal ministers accountable.
- Between 1376 and 1406, the Commons demanded:
- Greater oversight of royal expenditure.
- The right to audit royal finances.
- The appointment of special treasurers.
- By the early 15th century, taxation became less linked to war, with the wool subsidy effectively becoming a permanent source of revenue.
- Historian’s view: J.A. Tuck and Anthony Goodman suggest that Richard II’s reign left the monarchy weakened, while Gillingham argues that these developments ultimately reinforced royal authority by fostering cooperation between king and parliament.
Military and governance challenges to late medieval kings
- England had to maintain expensive military commitments in:
- Calais (£17,000 per year).
- Scottish Marches (£5,000-£7,000 per year).
- Ireland and Aquitaine (£3,000 per year each).
- Despite these costs, Henry IV’s government stabilized by 1406, reaching an accommodation with parliament.
- Richard II’s failed militarization of the monarchy:
- He spent £27,000 per year on his household, including £5,000 on his personal bodyguard (311 Cheshire archers).
- Gillingham sees this as an attempt to establish a standing army, an anomaly in English history.
Was this a period of crisis for the monarchy?
- Crisis View: Historians like A.R. Myers and Anthony Goodman argue that the monarchy’s financial struggles and parliamentary encroachment weakened royal authority.
- Continuity View (Gillingham’s Argument): The monarchy remained structurally strong despite challenges. Parliament’s increased role reflected a cooperative relationship, not a decline in royal power.
What complaints were raised at the Good Parliament?
De la Mare, spokesman of the commons, argued that the removal of the Staple from Calais was depriving the king of revenues and accused Latimer and Lyons of unjustly profiting from this
He also argued that loans were being raised unnecessarily to the king’s detriment - referred directly to a loan of 20,000 marks made by Latimer and Lyons for which the king paid an additional 10,000 marks premium
Also accused Alice Perrers (mistress of Edward III) of depriving the king of £2-3,000 a year and suggested that she be removed from his company
How did the Commons pressure the king into addressing their concerns at the Good Parliament?
De la Mare proclaimed that the commons would proceed no further with parliamentary business until the king had removed his evil councillors, replaced the Chancellor and Treasurer and dismissed Alice Perrers - the lords agreed to this (the king removed from his council Latimer, Neville and Alice Perrers)
^ when a dispute over the castle of St Sauveur emerged, de la Mare demanded that Latimer and Lyons be imprisoned (they were denied time to prepare their defence - Latimer was placed under the oversight of the Earl of March and Lyons was imprisoned)
De la Mare proclaimed that the commons would proceed no further with parliamentary business until the king had removed his evil councillors, replaced the Chancellor and Treasurer and dismissed Alice Perrers - the lords agreed to this (the king removed from his council Latimer, Neville and Alice Perrers)
^ when a dispute over the castle of St Sauveur emerged, de la Mare demanded that Latimer and Lyons be imprisoned (they were denied time to prepare their defence - Latimer was placed under the oversight of the Earl of March and Lyons was imprisoned)
Financial and commercial accusations raised at the Good Parliament?
- Latimer and Lyons arranged for the issue of licenses for the evasion of the staple, causing significant loss of revenue for Calais (only accusation against Latimer that was successfully maintained)
- Lyons imposed a tax on letters of exchange
- Latimer and Lyons arranged for a loan of 20,000 marks for which the king paid an additional 10,000 marks
- Brokerage of royal debts was practiced by Latimer, Lyons and Neville
- Latimer and William Elys (Lyons’ deputy) accused of extortion
- John Pecche exploited his monopoly in the sale of sweet wines
