The visual system Flashcards
why is vision important?
- detect prey/source food
- detect predators/danger
- detect mates
- communicate
more than a third of the human neocortex is involved in analysing the visual
what are the properties of light?
- electromagnetic radiation that is visible
- has a wavelength (distance between peaks and troughs)
- has a frequency (number of waves per second)
- has an amplitude (difference between a peak and a trough)
- spectrum from 400nm (blue) to 700nm (red)
- the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency
how does light travel?
in straight lines, rays until it interacts with molecules
what is reflection?
- light bounces off objects into our eyes
what is absorption of light?
- different materials will absorb different wavelengths of light
- if something is black, all wavelengths have been absorbed
- if something is black, all wavelengths have been reflected
- if something is red, all wavelengths except red have been absorbed
what is refraction of light?
- speed of light differs between mediums
- light is slower through water and faster through air
- the greater the difference in speed in the two media, the greater the angle of refraction
- refraction occurs towards a line that is perpendicular to the border
what are the structures of the eye?
- pupil - lets light inside the eye
- appears black due to heavy pigment at back of eye - iris - contains muscles which control the amount of light entering the eye
- cornea - transparent covering of the pupil and iris that refracts light
- sclera - continuous with cornea and forms protective wall over eyeball to give it its shape
- extraocular muscles - move the eyeball, controlled by oculomotor nerve (CN III)
- Optic nerve (CN II) - carries axons from retina to brain
how can eye position and pupil shape vary between species?
monocular vs binocular vision:
- monocular = one eye
- binocular = 2 eyes
predators have circular pupils to focus on prey
prey have horizontal pupils to expand peripheral vision
what does binocular vision enable?
- greater depth perception for predators
- greater peripheral vision for prey
what are the structures inside the eye?
- optic disk: origin of blood vessels and optic nerve, cannot sense light
- macula: region of retina for central vision, devoid of large blood vessels to improve vision quality
- fovea: retina is thinnest here, and has highest visual acuity
- nasal retina: contains lots of blood vessels and the optic disk
what does the retina contain?
- sensory receptor cells
- afferent neurons
how is the lens controlled?
- suspended by zonal fibres/suspensory ligaments
- ciliary muscle enable stretching of the lens
lens controls refraction
what are the two humors of the eye?
- aqueous humor
- clear fluid providing cells of cornea with nutrients
- allows cornea to be free of blood vessels - vitreous humor
- provides pressure inside the eyeball to maintain spherical shape
what determines how images formed in the eye?
- light rays are focused onto retina/fovea
- 80% refraction occurs at cornea, 20% refraction occurs at lens
- cornea and lens are dense liquids so have higher refractive index than air entering the eye
- the bigger the distance between air and cornea, the more refraction occurs
- the angle at which light hits the cornea determines refraction
- if at an angle, more refraction is needed
what is the refractive index?
- measure of speed of light within it
- light moves quicker through air (1.0003) than the cornea (1.376) due to the increased density of the cornea
how does the cornea refract light?
- light travels more slowly through the cornea than air due to higher density
- light that hits the cornea directly perpendicular moves straight through to the retina
what is the focal distance?
- distance from the refractive surface (cornea) to convergence of parallel light rays (retina)
- usually 17-20mm
how does the lens accommodate refraction of distant objects?
- it doesn’t
- light rays are almost parallel
- cornea provides sufficient refraction to focus them on the retina
how does the lens accommodate refraction of close objects (<7m away)?
- light rays are not parallel
- requires additional refraction to focus them on the retina
- lens becomes fatter to refract the light more
what does rounding of the lens achieve?
- increases refractive power to focus closer objects on the fovea
how does the lens become fattened/rounded for close objects?
- suspensory ligaments relax
- ciliary muscles contract
how does the lens become flattened for distant objects?
- suspensory ligaments contract
- ciliary muscles relax
what is hyperopia? how is it fixed?
farsightedness:
- eye is too short
- near objects are focused behind the retina as there is too little refraction
fixed with a convex lens (round lens) to increase refraction and make light more parallel when entering the eye
what is myopia? how is it fixed?
short-sightedness:
- eye is too long
- any distant objects are focused in front of the retina as there is too much refraction
fixed with a concave lens to increase refraction
what is the laminar organisation of the retina?
- light focused on the retina is converted into neural activity
- light passes through ganglion cells and bipolar cells before it reaches photoreceptors
- light is absorbed by pigmented epithelium (outer most layer)
- electrical signals move back from pigmented epithelium to the optic nerve
what are the cells of the retina?
- ganglion cells: output from retina
- amacrine cells: modulate information transfer between GCs and BCs
- bipolar cells: connect photoreceptors to ganglion cells
- horizontal cells: modulate info to transfer between photoreceptors and BCs
- photoreceptors: sensory transducers, rods and cones
what is the structure of photoreceptors?
- outer segment contains membranous disks which contain photopigments that absorb light (where phototransduction occurs)
- ciliary stalk connects outer segment to inner segment
- inner segment contains mitochondria for ATP
- separate systems for monochrome and colour