The Trait Perspective Flashcards
Types vs traits
Types: you are a single ‘type’ of person (may be different main types and sub-types, but you can only be one)
Traits: you can be described as having varying amounts of several traits (eg extraversion, optimism, pessimism etc)
What are traits?
Distinguishing qualities or characteristics of a person
Dimension of personality used to categorise someone according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic
Assumptions
Personality characteristics are relatively stable over time
Personality characteristics are stable across situations
Goals and features of the trait perspective
This perspective does not try to predict the behaviour of one person in a given situation
Goals are to describe behaviour typical of people at certain points along a trait continuum
Determine whether someone is high/low on a particular trait
Personality psychology, regardless of the particular perspective, used traits and trait measures
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
First acknowledged trait theorist
Believed in the individuality and uniqueness of the person and that people have consistent personalities.
Acknowledged the limitations of the trait concept.
Accepted behaviour is influenced by a variety of of environmental factors and traits are not useful for predicting what a single person will do.
Believed our traits have physical components in our nervous systems.
Allport: personality measurement
Nomothetic approach: identified common personality traits. All people can be described along a single dimension of a trait.
When used, a person’s score on a trait is compared with the scores of other participants.
Idiographic approach: identifies the unique combination of traits that best accounts for the personality of a single individual.
Allport: different types of traits
Cardinal: single traits which may dominate a personality and heavily influence behaviour.
Central: those 5-10 traits which best describe someone’s personality
Secondary: not core to personality, less general applicability (unlike central traits), likes and dislikes
The essential trait approach
Many psychologists have tried to reduce the many traits to a few essential ones: Cattel: 16 traits Costa and McCrae: 5 traits Eysenck: 3 traits Murray: 27 'needs'
Raymond Cattel (1905-1998)
Interested in identifying the basic structure of personality
Found 4500 words to describe aspects of personality.
Narrowed these down (factor analysis) to 171 trait names
Identified 16 personality factors
Personality measurement: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)
Cattel: sources of information about personality
Q-data: questionnaire data (eg self-report, personality questionnaires)
L-data: life data (information gathered about a persons life, such as school records)
T-data: test data (ie observational accounts, how people act when placed in lifelike situations)
The Big Five
5 superordinate traits well supported by a wide variety of research.
Not everyone agrees on the naming of these traits.
Commonly measured by ‘NEO-PIR’
Openness to experience
A willingness to consider new ideas, try new experiences.
Cultural appreciation
High scores associated with being imaginative, original, artistic, intellectual
Conscientiousness
How controlled and self-disciplined we are.
High scores associated with being dependable, organised, responsible
A good predictor of job success
Extraversion
High scores associated with being energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, dominant, risk-taking
Agreeableness
Prefer cooperation over competition. Less likely to have arguments.
High scores associated with being friendly, cooperative, trusting and warm, altruistic
Neuroticism
Emotional stability and personal adjustment.
High scores associated with being nervous, tense, moody, etc.
Cross-cultural applicability: the Big Five
Ashton and Lee (2007) found evidence for an honesty-humility dimension in non-English speaking cultures
The Big Five and the Workplace
Conscientiousness is the best predictor of workplace performance.
Agreeableness?
Issues: faking, response tendencies (social desirability), employee perceptions, assessment versus testing etc.
Eysenck’ Big Three Factors
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Psychoticism (tendency towards psychopathology - which involves impulsivity and cruelty)
Henry Murray (1893-1988): Needs
Primary (viscerogenic) needs: eg food, water, air, sex, avoidance of pain
Secondary (psychogenic) needs (27): readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances. eg achievement, dominance, affiliation, nurturance, rejection
Needs are ordered in a hierarchical order depending on the strength of needs, differs from person to person
Personality measurement: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Murray: Needs - Assumption
Behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium
Specific Needs: Murray
Need for power: a need for dominance (to influence or control others, to lead and direct etc). May be insecure, like to accumulate possessions.
Needs for affiliation: a need to form friendships, be part of groups and to win the affection of others (ie need to have friends and please them). Associated with being extroverted (seeking contact), consciousness (dependable), and agreeable (friendly).
Achievement Motivation: Murray
The desire to accomplish something difficult, to master, manipulate or organise, to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard to excel one’s self.
The need to attain a high standard and to be driven to succeed on tasks that are set out by society.
Implicit vs self-attributed achievement motivation
Implicit: we are not aware of it. Spontaneous actions.
Self-attributed (explicit): motive we can readily describe. Occurs when we have time to ponder achievement options and decisions
Achievement motivation: characteristics
Moderate risk takers: they want to succeed but are also highly motivated to avoid failure.
Work hard at tasks with potential for personal achievement.
Enjoy tasks which give them personal responsibility for outcomes - want credit for success but are also willing to accept blame for failure.
Achievement goals
Provide targets that people aspire to in achievement situations.
Mastery goals: concerned with developing competence.
Performance goals: concerned with developing accomplishments to others.
Approach goals: want to achieve goal
Avoidance: want to avoid failure
Emotions
Traits are relatively stable, but emotions fluctuate
However, we can generally identify relatively stable patterns in emotions as well in the following areas:
1. Affectivity
2. Intensity
3. Expressiveness
Emotional affectivity
Positive affect: at one extreme we find such emotions as active, content and satisfied, at the other extreme we see sad and lethargic.
Related to social activity and relationships.
Negative affect: one extreme we find nervousness, anger, and distress. Other extreme see calm and serene. Related to psychological distress and poorer physical health.
Measurements: self-report inventories like the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)
Affect intensity
Refers to the strength or degree to which people typically experience their emotions. (ie mild reactions (even-tempered) or more extreme reactions (very high and very low levels of positive mood))
Applies to both positive and negative emotions.
Emotional Expressiveness
Refers to a person’s outward display of emotions, how much they display their emotions (Non-verbal cues, such as tone and body language)
High expressiveness associated with better health
Extraversion is one trait which can be readily seen in an individual’s expressive style
People who are more expressive also tend to be more dominant, impulsive and popular
Optimism
People are relatively consistent as to whether they view the world in a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) light.
This is referred to as dispositional optimism. Optimists are more likely to achieve goals, handle stressors more effectively, respond more favourably to adversity and experience better health.
Measurement: Life Orientation Test
Seligman’s model of optimism
Suggests optimism can be learned ABC format: A: adversity B: beliefs about adversity C: consequences of such beliefs The key to learning optimism is in the formation of beliefs about adversity (point of intervention)
Traits and behaviour
Critics have charged that traits do not predict behaviour well and that there is little evidence for cross-situational consistency
Advocates say if measured correctly, a significant relationship between traits and behaviour can be found. Also maintain the amount of behaviour variance explained by traits is considerable and important
Personality assessment: trait perspective
Self-report assessment
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Some problems exists: faking, carelessness, sabotage and response tendencies
Type A people
Hostile
Early research found a strong link between Type A behaviour and heart attacks
Later studies did not always find this
Hostility could be related to cardiovascular problems though
Shy people
Tend to be self-conscious during social encounters
Reluctant to ask others for help
Often interpret feedback from their conversation partners as rejection
Suffer from evaluation apprehension: Shy people avoid negative evaluation by limiting their social interactions
