Behavioural/Social Learning Perspective

Question 1

Behaviourism: background

Answer 1

Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning
Edward Thorndike: law of effect
John Watson: put behaviourism on the map; personality = ‘habit systems’
B. F. Skinner: radical behaviourism

Question 2

Learned helplessness: Seligman

Answer 2

A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or adverse stimuli cannot be controlled
A view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances, even if they actually can exert some influence

Question 3

Generalisation: conditioning concept

Answer 3

When we generalise the conditioned response to other situations. If the generalised response is met with reinforcement, the behaviour is likely to persist.

Question 4

Discrimination: conditioning concept

Answer 4

Knowing which behaviours will likely be rewarded and which behaviours which will likely not be rewarded

Question 5

Shaping: conditioning concept

Answer 5

Rewarding behaviour which approximates the desired behaviour to try and achieve the desired goal

Question 6

Social learning theory: Rotter

Answer 6

Expectancy value theory: importance of beliefs about what the results of your behaviour are likely to be

Observed people in therapy:
Different people, given identical conditions for learning, learn different things
Some people respond predictably to reinforcement, others less so, and some respond unpredictably
Some people see a direct and strong connection between their behaviour and the rewards and punishments received

Question 7

Rotter’s basic formula for predicting behaviour

Answer 7

Behaviour potential = expectancy + reinforcement value

B = E + RV

Question 8

Behaviour potential (BP)

Answer 8

The likelihood that a given behaviour will occur in a particular situation
Expectancy and reinforcement value determines the strength of the behaviour potential

Question 9

Expectancy (E)

Answer 9

Estimations about what you expect to happen when you decide to do something
Rotter argues that the more often people are reinforced for a certain behaviour, the stronger their expectancy that the behaviour will be reinforced in the future

Question 10

Reinforcement value (RV)

Answer 10

The degree to which we prefer one reinforcer over another

Question 11

Locus of control

Answer 11

People differ in the extent to which they think there is a cause-and-effect link between their behaviour and reinforcers
Internal: everything is my fault
External: everything is something else’s (external forces) fault

Question 12

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Answer 12

Bandura emphasises the social nature of learning
Whilst we strive to achieve for external rewards, we are also directed by the goals we establish for ourselves. This is referred to as self-regulation

Question 13

Self-efficacy: Bandura

Answer 13

The belief in your ability to perform a particular behaviour to achieve a certain outcome
Measures of self-efficacy need to be associated with particular tasks, because self-efficacy is situation dependent.
Bandura suggests that seperate scales should be used to assess each self-efficacy domain
i.e. Children’s self-efficacy scale, teacher self-efficacy scale, parental self-efficacy scale

Question 14

Outcome expectations

Answer 14

The extent to which their actions will effect an outcome

Eg if you play the piano every day you will eventually be able to master a piece

Question 15

Efficacy expectations

Answer 15

The extent to which someone feels they can bring about an outcome
Eg if they don’t believe they can devote everyday to the piano, they won’t believe they will master the piece
Bandura saw this as a better predictor of behaviour

Question 16

Bandura: observational learning

Answer 16

We can learn by observing or reading or just hearing about other people’s actions.
Bandura identified 3 factors which are important for modelling to occur:
1. Characteristics of the model
2. Attributes of the observer
3. Consequences

Question 17

Bandura: modelling

Answer 17

Modelling of aggression may occur via observational aggression within the home or via observing aggression on TV

Modelling and gender role acquisition:
Children model same-sex characters more
Children are usually reinforced for engaging in gender specific behaviours

Question 18

Application: behaviour modification - classical conditioning

Answer 18

Systematic desensitisation (ie to treat phobias)
Replacing the old association of feared stimulus and response by a new association of stimulus

Aversion therapy (ie to treat alcoholism)

Question 19

Application: behaviour modification - operant conditioning

Answer 19

Contingency management (token economy) (eg patients are rewarded for making their bed, get a token to use later on an activity)
Biofeedback: requires special equipment that provides information about somatic processes eg tending muscles when anxious
Cognitive-behavioural therapy

Question 20

Application: increasing self-efficacy

Answer 20

Some people respond to treatment more favourably than others
Self-efficacy can improve treatment outcomes
Self-efficacy can be increased via:
1. Enactive mastery experiences
2. Vicarious experiences
3. Verbal persuasion
4. Physiological and affective states
Guided mastery throughout the treatment process: situation arranged by therapist that guarantees successful experience to client

Question 21

Increasing self-efficacy: enactive mastery experiences

Answer 21

Successful attempts to achieve the outcome in the past

Question 22

Increasing self-efficacy: vicarious experiences

Answer 22

Seeing other people perform a behaviour without adverse affect can lead us to believe that we can do it too

Question 23

Increasing self-efficacy: verbal persuasion

Answer 23

Telling someone they can do something

Question 24

Increasing self-efficacy: physiological and affective states

Answer 24

Paying attention to how you feel physically when performing an anxiety-inducing task can make it worse or better depending on if you are calm or sweating/shaking etc.

Question 25

Assessment

Answer 25

Before any positive change can be made, therapists need to establish baseline behaviour
This means that the effectiveness of the treatment can be evaluated
Of course, the behaviour must be observable

Question 26

Assessment: direct observation

Answer 26

Analogue behavioural observation: therapist creates a situation that resembles real-world setting in which the problem behaviour is likely to occur
Accuracy of behaviour can be improved by having two or more observers independently code the same behaviours

Question 27

Assessment: self-monitoring

Answer 27

Therapists ask clients to keep records of when and where they engage in certain behaviours
Can be beneficial itself in some instances
But are people honest?

Question 28

Assessment: observation by others

Answer 28

Provides the most accurate assessment of a client’s behaviour
Used to complement data obtained through other methods

Question 29

The four interrelated processes involved in observational learning of aggressions are…

Answer 29

Attend, remember, enact, expect