The Thinking Mind

Question 1

What are prototypes and exemplars?

Answer 1

Prototype

• averaging all elements of the category
• represents the category

Exemplars

• specific instance of a concept
• accounts for variability in category

Question 2

How is theory related to concepts?

Answer 2

Concepts as a form of theory used to guide our thinking by explaining and predicting phenomena. Through continual tests of accuracy against new information by comparisons with prototypes and exemplars to determine if an object fits the category

Question 3

How is the brain related to concepts?

Answer 3

There are specialised areas in the brain related to different concepts - animals, objects, visual, movements, etc.

Question 4

What are the four steps of problem solving?

Answer 4

1. Understand the problem
2. Make a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Looking back

Question 5

What is the difference between algorithms and heuristics?

Answer 5

Algorithms are precise step-by-step rules to reach the accurate and reliable solution, but is very time consuming. Heuristics are shortcuts that are faster and requiring less information, but is less reliable (does not guarantee a solution)

Question 6

Explain and give examples of the four heuristics.

Answer 6

Availability: events that are easy to think of are predicted to happen more often
- death by shark or bees

Representative: stimuli that are similar to the prototype would more likely fit into the cateogry
- apple vs avocado as a fruit

Recognition: we place a higher value on objects or events that we can recognise easily
- population of cities

Affect: using emotional response as a guide
- gut reactions

Question 7

What is the utility theory and what is a limitation?

Answer 7

Conducting a cost-benefit analysis through multiplying measures of usefulness by probability and to select the best outcome.

It is influenced by how the statistics are framed to us, as a gain or a loss. For example, we are more likely to choose the “80% success” over 20% failure”

Question 8

What are the three brain circuits in decision making?

Answer 8

Value: assign value based on pleasure or pain

Impulse control: controls unwanted responses

Attention: monitor significant stimuli

Question 9

What are the three building blocks of language

Answer 9

Phonemes: speech sounds

Morphemes: combined phonemes; smallest components of speech that carry meaning

Phrases and sentences: combining morphemes; according to rules of grammar

Question 10

What is aphasia? What is the difference between Bronca’s and Wernicke’s?

Answer 10

Aphasia is the loss of ability to speak or understand language, while it is still possible to read or write.

Patients with Bronca’s aphasia have difficulties producing speech. They speak slowly and laboriously but speak meaningfully.

Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia have difficulties comprehending language. They can speak rapidly and fluently but produce meaningless speech (though in generally correct grammar).

Question 11

What can we say about the innateness of language in humans?

Answer 11

1. There is an inborn capacity for humans to learn language.
2. Regardless of native language, language acquisition generally follow a common course, with similar language structures that appear around the same point in development
3. There are structures in the human brain that correlates to language
4. There is a genetic basis for language, as seen from language disabilities resulting from genetic conditions (mutations) - e.g. William syndrome, Down syndrome, and KE Family & FOXP2 gene

Question 12

What are some survival advantages of vocalisation?

Answer 12

1. Energy saving
2. Can occur at night or when hidden (cannot see gestures)
3. Free up the hands for using tools or when engaged in hand-to-hand combat

Question 13

What are some social influences on learning language?

Answer 13

1. Social interaction through conversations (two-way) are better for learning language (compared to one-way storytelling)
2. Face to face human interactions produce better results for learning language

Question 14

What are some biological influences on intelligence?

Answer 14

1. Brain structures: there is a positive correlation between intelligence and brain volume (thicker prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes)
2. IQ is 75% heredity, wile brain sizes and proportion of gray matter is 85% heredity. But there is no conclusive gene that can be linked to high IQ.
3. Intelligent brains show faster and most efficient communication along axon pathways

Question 15

What are some examples that can show a social influence on intelligence?

Answer 15

1. Improvements in nutrition and health factors
2. Strong correlations between a nation’s freedom from serious infectious diseases and citizens’ average IQ
3. Socialeconomic status and exposure to mentally stimulating activity affects IQ