The Scientist-Practitioner Model

Question 1

Describe the evolution of the Scientist-Practitioner Model

Answer 1

Originated at the 1949 Boulder Conference

Events leading up to the conference WWII and return servicemen

Conceived as a model for graduate student training

Question 2

What should be emphasised in the training of graduates?

Answer 2

Equal emphasis on research and practice

Question 4

What are some recommendations for training from the Boulder Conference? (Raimy, 1950)

Answer 4

Improve the accuracy and reliability of diagnostic procedures

Develop better understanding of human behaviour

Develop more efficient methods of treatment

Inclusion of research training in the preparation of psychologists

Question 5

What are some of the recommendations for practice from the Boulder Conference? (Raimy, 1950)

Answer 5

Use scientific methodology in their practice

Work with clients using scientifically valid methods, tools and techniques

Inform clients of scientifically based findings and approaches to their problems

Conduct practice-based research

Question 6

What are some of the merits of training practitioners as scientists?

Answer 6

Attainment of skills in critical thinking, to understand research findings and to implement best practice intervention so clients to get the “best” on offer.

Avoid harm, reduce unnecessary treatment and increase the likelihood of better efficiency in treatment.

Practitioners can justify the treatments and interventions they choose on empirical grounds.

Question 7

What is the definition of evidence-based practice?

Answer 7

The conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of the individual patient.

Question 8

What are the steps in the evidence-based practice?

Answer 8

Step 1. ASK
Step 2. ACCESS
Step 3. APPRAISE
Step 4. APPLY
Step 5. ASSESS

Question 9

What are the three components of evidence-based practice?

Answer 9

Clinical expertise
Best research evidence
Patient values and preferences

Question 10

Describe the hierarchy of evidence.

Answer 10

Meta-analyses
Systematic reviews
Critically appraised literature
RCTs
non-RCTs
Cohort studies
Case studies
Individual case reports
Background information/expert opinion

Question 11

What is an RCT?

Answer 11

Randomised Controlled Trial

Participants are randomly assigned to either control or intervention. May be exposed to one or several treatments/interventions. Trials follow strict protocols. Interventions may be manualised. May be single or double-blind.

Question 12

What is the PICO framework?

Answer 12

Population/Patient/Problem
Intervention
Comparison
Outcome

Question 13

Describe some biases in research and what these entail.

Answer 13

Design Bias - failure to account for inherent bias

Selection Bias - non-representative

Measurement Bias - an inaccurate or poorly designed measure

Response Bias - responding according to what experiments want or expect to find

Performance Bias - when researchers or participants act differently according to allocation of control or experimental group

Reporting Bias - errors or bias toward publishing positive results

Question 14

What is the difference between statistical and clinical significance?

Answer 14

Statistical significance indicates the reliability of the study results.

Clinical significance reflects its impact on clinical practice.

Question 15

What should clinical significance indicate?

Answer 15

1. Extent of change
2. Whether change makes a real difference
3. Duration of treatment effects
4. Consumer acceptability
5. Cost-effectiveness
6. Ease of implementation

Question 16

What are the effect size standards?

Answer 16

0.2 = Small
0.5 = Moderate
0.8 = Large

Question 17

What is the CONSORT statement?

Answer 17

Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials

CONSORT is a protocol developed by a group of scientists and editors and first published in 1996 and updated in 2001.

The statement consists of a checklist and flow diagram that authors can use for the reporting of an RCT.

Question 18

What is a Systematic Review?

Answer 18

A systematic review summarises the results of available carefully designed healthcare studies (controlled trials) and provides a high level of evidence on the effectiveness of healthcare interventions.

Question 19

What are the steps in a systematic review?

Answer 19

1. Determine the research question
2. Assemble the research team
3. Determine if there are any registered (in process) or published systematic reviews on your topic
4. Develop and register the protocol of your study
5. Develop a comprehensive search strategy,
   informed by your inclusion and exclusion criteria
6. Select studies for inclusion based on the predefined criteria
7. Extract and analyse the data
8. Interpret and synthesise results for publication
9. Update review as required

Question 20

What does PRISMA stand for?

Answer 20

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Question 21

What are Ethics?

Answer 21

A branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of behaviour expected by a group or profession.

Guiding principles promoting fairness and expectations, which help is to decide what is good and evil.

Standards which govern the life of a person.

Ethics are generally uniform.

Question 22

What are Morals?

Answer 22

Morals include the social, cultural and religious belief or values of an individual or group which tells us what is right or wrong.

They are rules and standards made by the society or culture which is to be followed by us while deciding what is right.

Can differ from culture to culture.

Question 23

What is the ethical theory of utilitarianism/consequentialism?

Answer 23

Consequences of our actions determine which actions are right or wrong; the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Question 24

What is the ethical theory of deontology?

Answer 24

Focused on the action rather than consequence; act in ways that are in line with duties and obligations

Question 25

What is the ethical theory of virtue ethics?

Answer 25

Consistency between a person’s character traits/internal virtues and actions

Question 26

What are the three basic principles of Ethics?

Answer 26

1. The principles of respect of persons
2. Beneficence
3. Justice

Question 27

Name the ethical codes relevant to psychology?

Answer 27

APS Code of Ethics (Australian)

APA Code of Ethics (American)

NHMRC - Ethical conduct in research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Communities

Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research

The 1947 Nuremberg Code

The Declaration of Helsinki (1964)

Question 28

What are the three components of the Australian Psychological Society Code of Ethics?

Answer 28

1. Respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples
2. Propriety
3. Integrity

Question 29

What is the purpose of the National Statement of Ethical Conduct in Human Research?

Answer 29

Promote ethically good human research

Clarify responsibilities of ethical review bodies in ethical review of research (deliberate potential issues, justify decisions)

Question 30

What are the four types of harms?

Answer 30

Physical harms: including injury, illness and pain

Psychological harms: including feelings of worthlessness, distress, guilt, anger, or fear related, for example, to disclosure of sensitive or embarrassing information

Devaluation of personal worth: including being humiliated, manipulated or in other ways treated disrespectfully or unjustly

Social harms: including damage to social networks or relationships with others

Question 31

What is the difference between harm, discomfort and inconvenience?

Answer 31

“Less serious than harm is discomfort, which can involve body and/or mind. Discomforts include, for example, minor side-effects of medication, the discomforts related to measuring blood pressure, and anxiety induced by an interview.”

“Where a person’s reactions exceed discomfort and become distress, they should be viewed as harms.”

“Less serious again is inconvenience. Examples of inconvenience may include filling in a form, participating in a street survey, or giving up time to participate in research.”

Question 32

What should psychologists inform participants about when obtaining consent?

Answer 32

1. The purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures;
2. Their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun;
3. The foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
4. Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects;
5. Any prospective research benefits;
6. Limits of confidentiality;
7. Incentives for participation;
8. Whom to contact for questions……”

Question 33

What is limited disclosure?

Answer 33

‘Limited disclosure’ to participants of the aims and/or methods of research may sometimes be justifiable. This is because in some human research (for example, in the study of behaviour), the aims of the research cannot be achieved if those aims and/or the research method are fully disclosed to participants.

Question 34

What components should be considered when managing deception?

Answer 34

• There is no likely reason to assume that participants would not have consented if they would have known before the start of the study what the study involved
• Does not increase the risk of harms
• Participants will be debriefed
• Participants retain the right to discontinue at any time
• Debriefing must fully inform participants and ask for their permission to retain data

Question 35

What is a predatory journal?

Answer 35

A predatory journal is one that accepts articles for publication along with the author’s fees (as distinct from reputable open access publishing), often without providing peer-review or editing services.

Question 36

How do you spot a predatory journal?

Answer 36

Predatory journals often offer a quick turn around - as they do not offer academic services such as peer-reviewing and editing, the turn around is quicker to publish a manuscript compared to a standard academic journal.