The River Civilizations

Question 1

What are the five hallmarks of a civilization?

Answer 1

1. Advanced cities dependent in part on trade
2. Specialized workers
3. Recordkeeping, usually in the form of writing
4. Complex institutions, like religion and government
5. Advanced technologies, such as metalworking

Question 2

Where was Çatal Hüyük?

Answer 2

Çatal Hüyük is in southern Anatolia and was one of the first city-states, dating from the late Neolithic Era. Çatal Hüyük thrived from 7500 B.C. to 5700 B.C.

Çatal Hüyük relied upon sedentary agriculture for food and contained a high degree of social stratification.

Question 3

Where did the first civilization arise?

Answer 3

The first civilization was Sumeria and rose in Mesopotamia, which is the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers in the south of modern-day Iraq. Sumeria was a collection of city-states and dates from around 4000 B.C.

Question 4

Define:

city-state

Answer 4

The earliest civilized centers were city-states, such as Ur in Mesopotamia.

City-states consisted of an urban center that exercised control over a surrounding agricultural hinterland. City-states were ruled by an urban-based king, who inherited his power dynastically.

Question 5

What were ziggurats?

Answer 5

Ziggurats were religious temples that dominated Mesopotamian cities. Ziggurats could be massive and served as a temporal reminder of the power of the city ruler and priests.

Question 6

Where was the Fertile Crescent?

Answer 6

The Fertile Crescent refers to the lands between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, stretching down into Palestine.

The land between the rivers was exceptionally good farming land, and the region provided the home for many powerful ancient civilizations, including Sumeria, Assyria, and Babylon.

Question 7

What is cuneiform?

Answer 7

Cuneiform refers to the wedge-shaped writing developed by the ancient Sumerians around 3300 B.C.

Initially developed for the purposes of recordkeeping, cuneiform became a way to transfer early literature and legal codes.

Question 8

Why does Sargon the Great deserve the title “Great”?

Answer 8

Around 2200 B.C., Sargon conquered several of the Sumerian city-states of Mesopotamia, merging them into the Akkadian Empire.

The Akkadian Empire was the first of the world’s empires. Some 150 years after Sargon established the empire, it collapsed for reasons historians continue to theorize about.

Question 9

Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamia divided into two Akkadian-speaking nations. What were they?

Answer 9

Although it took centuries, the remnants of the Akkadian Empire combined into Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south.

Question 10

What is the Epic of Gilgamesh?

Answer 10

Composed around 2000 B.C., the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the world’s oldest literary works and was probably conveyed as oral tradition for centuries before it was written down. The epic describes a great flood in which all of humanity is wiped out and also describes the interactions of Gilgamesh with the gods.

Question 11

______ created a law code containing various punishments, including the famous “an eye for an eye.”

Answer 11

Hammurabi

A powerful Babylonian emperor, Hammurabi’s law code is among the earliest recorded legal systems, and it could be quite harsh. The famous “eye for an eye” required the loss of an eye if one caused someone else to lose an eye, even accidentally.

Question 12

Although he was not the first king of the city-state of Babylon, Hammurabi was more successful than his predecessors, expanding his territory to conquer much of southern Mesopotamia. Why was Hammurabi so successful?

Answer 12

Hammurabi possessed two tools, which his predecessors and competitors lacked. First, the Babylonian Army was well disciplined, enabling it to achieve military victory over other city-states. Secondly, Hammurabi established an efficient Babylonian bureaucracy, which enabled the state to thrive and support military efforts.

Hammurabi’s territorial conquests became part of Babylonia and were ruled from the administrative center and capital of Babylon.

Question 13

The ancient Mesopotamians proved quite adept at math. Why did they develop this skill?

Answer 13

Math is a prerequisite for understanding and predicting the movement of the planets. Planetary movement was an essential component of Mesopotamian religion.

As part of their mathematical development, the Mesopotamians developed the base-60 numbering system, which is still used in navigation and to tell time.

Question 14

What empire developed in Anatolia in the 1300s B.C. before going on to conquer much of Mesopotamia and go to war with the Egyptians?

Answer 14

The Hittite Empire conquered much of Mesopotamia between the 1300s and 1200s B.C. They were among the first to use iron weapons and pioneered the use of chariot warfare.

The Battle of Kadesh, which took place in 1274 B.C. between the Hittites and the Egyptians, is the first historical battle for which sufficient records exist that historians can analyze tactics and formations.

Question 15

Who were the Assyrians?

Answer 15

The Assyrians conquered much of Mesopotamia between 900 and 500 B.C. and developed a powerful empire that rivaled the Babylonians.

Known for their fierce battle tactics and use of cavalry, the Assyrians also developed their own monumental architecture, including sculptures of winged bulls that guarded their capital at Nineveh.

Question 16

Herodotus, the first historian, called Egypt “the gift of the Nile.” Why?

Answer 16

Herodotus called Egypt the gift of the Nile because the Nile River’s predictable floods deposited fertile soil that enabled agriculture to prosper.

In turn, the Egyptians were able to develop more sophisticated agricultural techniques such as basin irrigation, which held back water behind dykes for release when needed.

Question 17

What event marked the beginning of Egypt’s history as a civilization?

Answer 17

Most historians date the beginnings of Egyptian civilization to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under one ruler, the pharoah, in around 3100 B.C.

Although it would occasionally be divided between rival rulers, for most of its ancient history Egypt was unified under one pharoah.

Question 18

What burial monuments are Egypt’s most famous?

Answer 18

The Three Pyramids at Giza are Egypt’s most famous monuments, created as resting places for three Egyptian pharaohs in Egypt’s Old Kingdom which lasted from around 2600 B.C. to 2150 B.C.

Other Old Kingdom pharoahs built pyramids too, but the Great Pyramids are the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World still standing.

Question 19

Who were the Hyksos?

Answer 19

Historians still debate about the origin of the Hyksos, but armed with chariots and compound bows, the Hyksos conquered Egypt and brought the Middle Kingdom (circa 2040 B.C. to 1640 B.C.) to an end.

The Hyksos were ousted in around 1550 B.C., giving rise to the New Kingdom.

Question 20

Which Egyptian pharaoh was the most powerful and influential of the New Kingdom?

Answer 20

Under Ramses II, who ruled from 1279 B.C. to 1213 B.C., Egypt’s New Kingdom (circa 1550 B.C. to 1070 B.C.) reached its height of power and influence.

In addition to conquering much of North Africa and the Middle East, Ramses II built huge statues of himself.

Question 21

What was the principal Ancient Egyptian religious text?

Answer 21

The principal religious text of Ancient Egypt was the Book of the Dead, which was a guide to navigating the afterlife. Under Egyptian polytheistic theology, life after death was of paramount concern. Bodies were buried with grave goods and mummified to ensure safe passage into the afterlife.

Question 22

How did Ancient Egyptian writing differ from that of Mesopotamia?

Answer 22

Mesopotamian writing used symbols to equate to sounds, known as cuneiform. Egyptian writing used pictures to represent sounds – a system known as hieroglyphics.

Question 23

Egyptians used _____ to make paper, upon which elaborate texts were composed.

Answer 23

papyrus

Papyrus is made from reeds. Until the Middle Ages, it remained the dominant means of making paper.

Question 24

The sun god _____ was the primary god in the Egyptian pantheon.

Answer 24

Ra

In Ancient Egyptian religion, the pharaoh was Ra incarnate on earth, and he oversaw a priestly caste that paid homage to gods such as Thoth, Osiris, and Ptah.

Question 25

Where was Nubia?

Answer 25

Nubia was a kingdom to the south of Egypt, which was eventually conquered by the Egyptians around 1500 B.C. Nubia served as a trade conduit between Egypt and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Question 26

Which two cities were the largest of the Indus River civilizations, which thrived from 2600 B.C. to 1900 B.C.?

Answer 26

The two largest cities of the Indus River civilizations were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, each of which had populations in excess of 35,000.

The two cities were some 500 miles apart but engaged in trade with each other and the Mesopotamians to the west. Both cities eventually fell into decline, probably after the Indus River’s water level fell.

Question 27

The _____ arrived in the Indian subcontinent around 1700 B.C., quickly conquering the native inhabitants.

Answer 27

Aryans

Although not much is known about the Aryans, they were polytheistic and most gods were connected in some way to the natural world. The Aryans’ collection of sacred writings was known as the Vedas, and reveal a patriarchal society with a strict hierarchy.

Question 28

The Aryans introduced a social structure known as a _____ _____ into India around 1700 B.C.

Answer 28

caste system

The caste system divided people into four groups known as Varnas, based upon occupation. At the top of the Varnas were the Brahmins (comprised of priests and scholars), followed by Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants, and craftsmen), and Shudras (servants).

An even lower caste, known as the untouchables, would be introduced in later centuries.

Question 29

Where did the first Chinese civilization arise?

Answer 29

The first Chinese civilization was the Shang Dynasty, which rose along the banks of the Huang He River around 1750 B.C. The Shang were exceptionally warlike and engaged in near constant battles with the nomads to the north and west.

Question 30

What style of writing arose in ancient China, possibly as far back as 5000 B.C.?

Answer 30

Ancient China (and to a lesser extent modern China) use a system of writing known as pictographs, where pictures represent syllables.

Question 31

What were the two primary facets of ancient Chinese religion?

Answer 31

The two primary facets of ancient Chinese religion were ancestor veneration and divination (fortune telling).

Ancestor veneration reinforced patriarchy, while divination sought to provide guidance for life.

Question 32

What were the primary trade goods of the early Chinese?

Answer 32

The two primary trade goods of the early Chinese were silk, which may have made its way across India to the Middle East by 1000 B.C., and jade, a type of precious stone that was often elaborately decorated.

The Shang Dynasty also excelled in producing magnificent bronze works, which adorned Chinese temples.

Question 33

Until the modern era, China has considered itself the “Middle Kingdom.” Why?

Answer 33

Beginning with the Shang Dynasty, China viewed itself as the center of the universe and thus superior to other nations. Hence, China became known as the Middle Kingdom around which all others revolved.

Question 34

Which long-lasting dynasty followed the Shang as rulers of China?

Answer 34

The Zhou (Chou) dynasty followed the Shang as China’s rulers, arising out of nomads from the west and conquering much of China by 1045 B.C.

Question 35

Define:

Mandate of Heaven

Answer 35

The Mandate of Heaven was the central governing justification of the Zhou emperors. It held that as long as a leader governed justly and wisely, he could lay claim to a divine right to rule.

Question 36

What do historians refer to as China’s Warring States Period?

Answer 36

During the end of the Zhou Dynasty, a series of civil wars broke out throughout China, known as the Warring States Period.

It arose after a series of weak Zhou emperors failed to prevent serious collapse, and lasted from 480 B.C. to 221 B.C., when the Zhou Dynasty fell to the Qin (Chin) Dynasty.

Question 37

What is Caral?

Answer 37

Caral is believed to be the first city in the Americas and arose in central Peru along the Supe River around 2600 B.C.

Although archeological and historical research is ongoing, it is known that early Andes cultures were skilled in metallurgy, weaving, and pottery.

Question 38

Define:

Quipu

Answer 38

Early Andean civilization lacked written language. The Quipu was a form of recordkeeping for these civilizations involving tied knots on long strings.

Question 39

Who were the Chavín?

Answer 39

The Chavín were an early Andean culture that arose around 1000 B.C. along the central Andean highlands. The Chavín had an extensive road network and raised crops by carving terraces into hills and mountains.

In addition to using the llama as a domesticated animal, the Chavín are known for their elaborate weaving. The Chavín were polytheistic, and their pantheon was presided over by a jaguar deity known to archeologists as the Walking Sticks God.

Question 40

What civilization is considered to be the Mesoamerican mother civilization?

Answer 40

The Olmecs (1200 B.C. to 400 B.C.) were the first civilization to arise in Mesoamerica.

Much like the Sumerians influenced the Babylonians and the Assyrians, the Olmecs are believed to have influenced later cultures such as the Maya and Aztecs.

Question 41

The Olmecs are primarily remembered for what massive carvings?

Answer 41

The Olmecs are remembered today for their carvings of monumental stone heads, some weighing up to 40 tons.

The Olmecs also had large mounds and platforms, which historians and archeologists believe had a religious function and may have involved human sacrifice.