Early Religion and Thought

Question 1

In what primary way did Judaism differ from other early religions?

Answer 1

Judaism was monotheistic unlike the polytheistic religions of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Judaism was practiced by the Hebrews, a nomadic tribe that migrated to Egypt sometime around 1700 B.C.

Question 2

What is the Exodus?

Answer 2

The Exodus refers to the flight of the Hebrews out of Egypt around 1400 B.C. According to Jewish religious teaching, the Hebrews were led by Moses, under the guidance of a single god, YHWH (Hebrew for “God”). YHWH gave Moses laws to govern the Hebrews, including the Ten Commandments.

Question 3

By 1000 B.C., the Hebrews had established a kingdom known as _____ in Palestine.

Answer 3

Israel

David and Solomon were Israel’s most powerful kings and extended the kingdom’s boundaries to their greatest extent. After the kingdom split into two halves, the Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and the Southern Kingdom by the Chaldeans (also known as the Neo-Babylonians) in 587 B.C. The inhabitants of the Southern Kingdom, known as Judea, were exiled to Babylonia.

The name “Jews” comes from the name of Judea.

Question 4

What is the Torah?

Answer 4

The Torah is the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, purported to have been written by Moses. The Torah is the most venerated and sacred of Hebrew texts and forms part of the Tanakh, the entire Hebrew Bible.

Question 5

What is Passover?

Answer 5

Passover refers to an event recounted in the Hebrew Book of Exodus, where YHWH (God) spares the first-born sons of the Hebrews, and the Angel of Death destroys those of the Egyptians.

According to Exodus, the slaughter of the Egyptian first-borns induced the pharaoh to let the Hebrews leave Egypt.

Question 6

What are the Vedas?

Answer 6

Vedas are four religious texts brought into India by the Aryans around 1500 B.C. The oldest and most widely known Veda is the Rig Veda, which described a polytheistic pantheon of gods and the concepts of reincarnation and karma.

Vedism would later give rise to Hinduism.

Question 7

Define:

reincarnation

Answer 7

Reincarnation is the belief that after death, one’s soul returns to earth in the form of a new life.

Karma, how one behaved in an earlier life, determines the station into which rebirth takes place; good deeds would ensure that the new life would be better than the old, and bad deeds the opposite. Reincarnation is a primary component of Hinduism, which emerged in India from Vedism beginning around 600 B.C.

Question 8

The _____ were a collection of hundreds of poems and essays that were composed in India between 900 B.C. and 500 B.C.

Answer 8

Upanishads

The Upanishads challenged Vedism’s reliance on the Brahmins (Vedism’s priestly caste), who claimed that only through complete observance could a better reincarnated state occur. Instead, the Upanishads suggested that people could themselves better their lot in the next life.

Question 9

What is the Bhagavad Gita?

Answer 9

The Bhagavad Gita is an epic poem written down around 400 B.C., although its origins are much older.

The Bhagavad Gita describes the interaction between a warrior and the god Krishna, in which Krishna lays out the principles of reincarnation and atman, the eternal self. The Bhagavad Gita is part of a larger poem, the Mahabharata.

Question 10

Define:

dharma

Answer 10

Dharma, which can loosely be translated as “duty,” refers to those deeds that must be fulfilled for improved reincarnation. When a member of a lower caste fulfills their dharma, they are rewarded by being born into a higher caste.

Question 11

Define:

atman

Answer 11

Atman refers to the Hindu concept of the eternal self. The atman is continually reincarnated as persons are reborn into new bodies after death.

The atman is a part of the Universal Spirit, which guides all life. The goal of the atman and reincarnation is to rejoin the Universal Spirit by achieving perfection.

Question 12

In Hinduism, who is Brahma?

Answer 12

Brahma is the Hindu god of creation, and along with Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer) one of the three leading gods of the Hindu Trimurti.

Question 13

The Law of Manu, composed between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D., was a legal treatise justifying what institution?

Answer 13

The Law of Manu sought to justify the caste system by presenting acceptance of one’s caste position as a form of dharma.

It also firmly established female subservience to men, going so far as to suggest that women whose husbands had died throw themselves onto their husbands’ funeral pyres.

Question 14

Siddhartha Gautama is better known by what name?

Answer 14

Siddhartha Gautama, who lived from around 560 B.C. to 480 B.C., is better known by the name of Buddha.

A nobleman from India’s north, Buddha abandoned his privileged background in a quest to discover why suffering existed. After being enlightened (Buddha means “enlightened one”) while sitting under a tree, Buddha established the basic tenets of Buddhism. Importantly, Buddha never claimed to have achieved divine status.

Question 15

Define:

nirvana

Answer 15

Nirvana is a Buddhist belief and refers to the state of being liberated from the wheel of life. To achieve nirvana was a personal quest and required realizing the Four Noble Truths and following both the Eightfold Path of good conduct and the Five Moral Rules.

Question 16

What are the Four Noble Truths?

Answer 16

The Four Noble Truths are one of the basic tenets of Buddhism. The Four Truths are:

1. all life is suffering
2. suffering is caused by desire
3. extinguish desire and one extinguishes suffering
4. desire may be extinguished by following the Eightfold Path

Question 17

Eliminating desire is an essential tenet of Buddhism. How did Buddha suggest that desire be eliminated?

Answer 17

Buddha proposed the Eightfold Path to eliminate desire. The Eightfold Path’s simple propositions are:

1. know truth
2. resist evil
3. cause no harm to others
4. respect life
5. work for others’ well being
6. control your thoughts
7. free your mind of evil
8. practice meditation

Question 18

Which religion established the Five Moral Rules?

Answer 18

Buddhism established the Five Moral Rules, which are:

1. do not kill any living thing
2. do not take what does not belong to you
3. do not lie
4. do not drink intoxicating beverages
5. do not be unchaste

Question 19

Which emperor became a Buddhist convert, ensuring the widespread influence of Buddhism?

Answer 19

Ashoka, who ruled a state in southern India, became a Buddhist convert and had Buddhist teaching spread throughout his lands in the 200s B.C.. From there, Buddhism spread throughout South, Southeast, and East Asia.

Ashoka constructed numerous pillars inscribed with Buddhist teaching and Ashoka’s commentary thereon. Properly enough, the surviving pillars are known as the “Pillars of Ashoka.”

Question 20

What teachings do Hinduism and Buddhism have in common?

Answer 20

Both Hinduism and Buddhism share a belief in reincarnation and karma. Buddhism rose as an offshoot of Hinduism, although it placed much more emphasis on personal actions and rejected the caste system.

Question 21

Which religion arose from a Chinese government official’s thoughts on the proper relationship between society and the individual?

Answer 21

Confucianism arose from the thoughts of Confucius (551 B.C. to 479 B.C.), a Chinese government official who’d retired and began contemplating the relationship between society and individuals.

Confucius’ conversations, known as the Analects, were compiled long after his death and are conversations between himself and his students. Confucianism would become the dominant religion in China.

Question 22

Confucius lived during China’s Warring States Period. To what cause did Confucius attribute China’s chaos?

Answer 22

Confucius attributed China’s chaos to the unethical behavior of both China’s rulers and its people. To Confucius, both had abandoned virtuous conduct. A harmonious society could be assured only if rulers behaved benevolently and those over whom they ruled also behaved in a good manner.

Question 23

Confucius attributed societal harmony to following the Rules of _____.

Answer 23

Propriety

The Rules of Propriety centered on five hierarchical relationships.

The emperor must take care of his subjects and his subjects must obey him.
A father must take care of his son and the son must obey the father.
An older brother must take care of his younger brother and the younger brother must obey the older brother.
A husband must take care of his wife and the wife must obey her husband.
Friends, who are equal, must care for each other.

Question 24

Confucianism places importance on the concept of the Dao. What is the Dao?

Answer 24

In Confucianism, the Dao is the path upon which one travels to learn virtue. The concept of Dao was of especial importance to Chinese government and the development of a meritocracy; those fit by acquisition of learning and virtue merited higher positions in the government and entitled one to authority and respect.

Question 25

Who gave birth to the religion of Daoism?

Answer 25

Lao-Tse, a wandering scholar who lived in China in the 600s B.C., gave birth to Daoism.

While Lao-Tse acknowledged the existence of the Dao, he suggested that the Rules of Propriety were not a guide to achieve virtue. Instead, virtue could be achieved by accepting and living in harmony with nature.

Question 26

What is Daoism’s central text?

Answer 26

The central text of Daoism is the Tao-Te Ching, reputedly composed by Lao-Tse.

The Tao-Te Ching taught that one should live in harmony with the universe by focusing on the Dao and being unconcerned with the meaningless world of politics and the acquisition of material possessions.

Question 27

The _____ is the primary scripture of Zoroastrianism, a religion that arose in Iran around 1000 B.C., and was formalized around 600 B.C.

Answer 27

Avesta

The Avesta contains hymns and discusses Ahura Mazda, the only god and the world’s creator. In Zoroastrianism’s monotheistic teaching, Ahura Mazda is locked in a constant struggle against Ahriman, the evil spirit. Only at the end of time will judgment come and Ahriman be vanquished. Zoroastrianism takes its name from Zoroaster, who founded the religion.

Ahriman is also known as Angra Mainyu.

Question 28

Which empire adopted Zorastrianism, in part to justify the continued conquest of other nations?

Answer 28

Zoroastrianism was adopted by the Persians during the reign of Darius the Great. Zoroastrianism’s description of the earth as a battleground between good and evil appealed to the Persians, who, of course, saw themselves on the side of the good.

Question 29

Which religious teacher gave birth to Christianity?

Answer 29

Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish subject of the Roman Empire, gave birth to Christianity around 30 A.D. Jesus preached the coming of a Kingdom of God, which Roman officials interpreted as a threat. He was executed on a cross in the early 30s A.D.

Question 30

What are the Gospels?

Answer 30

The Gospels are the first four books of the New Testament and contain the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. The Gospels describe Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, and form the core of Christian religious teachings.

The Old Testament is a Christian reference to the adoption of Jewish scripture and contains the Torah and most of the books of the Tanakh.

Question 31

Who were the Apostles?

Answer 31

The Apostles were Jesus’ close group of followers, who claimed that Jesus had risen from the dead.

Taking advantage of Roman roads and the wide availability of sea travel, the Apostles and their followers spread Christianity through the Roman Empire.

Question 32

How did early Christian leaders, such as Peter and Paul, widen the appeal of Christianity?

Answer 32

Peter and Paul decreed that Christians did not need to follow Jewish dietary law or be circumcised, which made Christianity much more popular among the Greeks and Romans. Christianity’s teaching of a happy afterlife appealed to those who lacked power in Roman society, such as non-citizens, the poor, and women.

According to legend, Peter was the first Pope.

Question 33

How did the Roman Empire react to the rise of Christianity?

Answer 33

The Roman Empire reacted harshly to the rise of Christianity, which threatened the religious foundations of the Roman state and the divine Emperor. Christians were persecuted, subjected to forced renunciations of Christian beliefs, and famously blamed for burning Rome to the ground in 64 A.D.

Question 34

Prior to the adoption of Christianity in 313 A.D., what religious system did the Greeks and Romans follow?

Answer 34

The Greeks and Romans followed a polytheistic religion, in which Zeus (Jupiter in Roman tradition) presided over a pantheon of lesser gods.

Each of the Greco-Roman gods had an assigned role and task. Appeasing the gods through sacrifice or donations was a prerequisite to any venture. The Greco-Roman gods often intervened in human affairs, and Zeus was well known to enjoy seducing mortal women.

Question 35

Which Roman Emperor issued the Edict of Milan in 313 A.D.?

Answer 35

Constantine the Great issued the Edict of Milan, which not only made Christianity legal throughout the Empire. Constantine’s motivations were less divine than temporal; he wished to use Christianity to stabilize the Roman state.

Question 36

What is the Great Schism?

Answer 36

The Great Schism occurred in 1054 A.D., when Christianity split into Eastern and Western halves, ostensibly over religious doctrine such as the use of icons and the Pope’s temporal powers.

The Eastern half became known as the Orthodox Church and was based in Constantinople, while the Western Roman-based half became the Catholic Church.

Question 37

What systematic method of rational thought derives its name from the Greek words for “the love of wisdom”?

Answer 37

The term “philosophy” comes from the Greek words for “the love of wisdom.” Philosophy arose in Athens in 500 B.C., where Socrates examined the ethics, democracy, and questioned conventional wisdom by employing rational thought.

Question 38

Which Greek philosopher and student of Socrates composed The Republic?

Answer 38

In The Republic, the Greek philosopher Plato adopted much of Socrates’ methods and applied them to examine the ideal means of governing a society. The Republic is one of the foundational texts of Western philosophy.

Question 39

What follower of Plato advocated empiricism?

Answer 39

Aristotle, one of Plato’s students, advocated empiricism, the use of the senses as a means for understanding and learning about the world.

Aristotle later became one of Alexander the Great’s teachers, and Alexander reputedly sent Aristotle letters from the far-flung lands he conquered.

Question 40

The poet _____ is credited with having written the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Answer 40

Homer

The Iliad and the Odyssey were originally oral poems and were not written down until centuries after Homer’s death. The Iliad describes Greek heroes such as Achilles and Agamemnon in their attack on Troy, while the Odyssey describes one of the Greek kings’ attempts to return home after the Trojan War.

Question 41

Where is the Parthenon located?

Answer 41

The Parthenon is located in the hill of the Acropolis at Athens and is a temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena. Completed in 432 B.C., the Parthenon has influenced generations of architects and is considered one of the high points of Greek art.

Question 42

For what accomplishments are Aeschylus and Euripides duly famous?

Answer 42

Aeschylus and Euripides are famous Greek playwrights, whose works have fortunately been preserved. The plays of these authors are still performed today and have been influential on generations of artists and authors.

Playwrights such as Aeschylus and Euripedes formalized theater into two dominant forms, comedy and tragedy.

Question 43

In the first century B.C., the Roman poet Virgil composed what epic poem?

Answer 43

Virgil composed The Aeneid, an epic poem that described the flight of refugees under Aenias from Troy to the Italian peninsula.

According to Virgil, Aenias’ descendants went on to found the Roman state.

Question 44

Constructed near the center of Rome, what building was established as the home of Rome’s circuses and gladiatorial exhibitions?

Answer 44

The Coliseum was built to serve as a central location for gladiatorial combat, animal fights, recreations of famous battles, and chariot races.

Famously, the Coliseum once was filled with water and a full-scale naval battle was staged to the delight of the crowds.

Question 45

Which city was home to the Great Library, one of the ancient world’s repositories of texts?

Answer 45

The Great Library was in Alexandria, which had been founded by Alexander the Great. It housed thousands of books and historians still lament its accidental burning during Julius Caesar’s campaign in Egypt.