The Research Methods of Biospychoagy Flashcards
• is a method of studying
organs using X-rays and the
administration of a special
dye, called a contrast medium.
• This test allows the
radiologist to
evaluate structures that are
not clearly evident on
conventional X-ray exams.
CONTRAST XRAYS
• is a diagnostic test that uses an X-ray.
• Uses the infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a
cerebral artery to visualize the cerebral
circulatory system during x-ray photography
• It produces a cerebral angiogram, or an image
that find blockages or other abnormalities in the
blood vessels of your head and neck.
CEREBRAL ANGIOGRAPHY
• Also known as CT scan
• Is a computer-assisted X-ray
procedure that can be used
to visualize the cranium and
the internal structures of
the living body
X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
• scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and
radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body.
• A procedure in which high-resolution images are constructed from the measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when they are activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic field.
• provides clearer images of the brain than does CT.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
• Was the first brain-imaging technique to provide images of
brain activity (functional brain images) rather than images of
brain structure (structural brain images).
• The scan uses a special dye containing radioactive tracers.
These tracers are either swallowed, inhaled, or injected into a
vein depending on what part of the body is being examined.
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
• measures brain activity by detecting changes
associated with blood flow.
• Produce images representing the increase in
oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of the
brain.
• BOLD Signal (Blood-oxygen-level-dependent
signal)– the signal recorded by fMRI
FUNCTIONAL MRI
FOUR ADVANTAGES OF FMRI OVER PET
1.Nothing has to be injected into the subject
2.It provides both structural and functional information in the
same image
3.Its spatial resolution is better
4.It can be used to produce three-dimensional images of
activity over the entire brain
• is a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity
by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents
occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers.
Its major advantage over fMRI is its temporal resolution; it can record fast changes in neural activity
MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
• Is a technique for affecting the activity in an area of the cortex by creating a magnetic field under a coil positioned next to the skull.
• In effect, the magnetic stimulation temporarily turns off part of the brain while the effects of the disruption on cognition and behavior are assessed.
TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION
• Is a measure of the gross electrical
activity of the brain.
• It is recorded through large electrodes
by a device called an
electroencepalograph.
• The scalp EEG signal reflects the sum of
electrical events throughout the head.
SCALP ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY
(EEG)
• Also called Berger’s wave after the
founder of EEG.
• One type of brain waves in the frequency
range of 7.5–12.5 Hertz arising from
synchronous and coherent (in phase or
constructive) electrical activity
of thalamic pacemaker cells in humans.
ALPHA WAVES
• Measure of somatic nervous system activity.
• is the usual procedure for measuring muscle tension.
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
(EMG)
• Measure of somatic
nervous system activity.
• The electrophysiological
technique for recording
eye-movements
ELECTROOCULOGRAPHY (EOG)
• measure of autonomic nervous
system activity
• Skin Conductance Level
(SCL)
• Skin Conductance Response
SKIN
CONDUCTANCE
is a measure of the
background level of skin
conductance that is associated
Skin Conductance Level
(SCL)
is a measure of the transient
changes in skin conductance that
are associated with discrete
experiences.
Skin Conductance Response
• Heart Rate
•Blood Pressure
•Blood Volume
CARDIOVASCULAR ACTIVITY
• the electrical signal that is associated with each
heartbeat can be recorded through electrodes placed
on the chest.
• Electrocardiography (ECG)
HEART RATE
is the process of
recording the electrical activity of the heart over a
period of time using electrodes placed over the skin
Electrocardiography (ECG)
• Systoles
• Diastoles
• Sphygmomanometer
BLOOD PRESSURE
• refers to the various techniques for
measuring changes in the volume of
blood in a particular part of the
body
BLOOD VOLUME
Plethysmography
• The first step in many biopsychological experiments
• Means by which experimental devices are precisely positioned in the depths of the brain
• Uses the following:
• Stereotaxic atlas, used to locate brain structures from a designated reference point
• Stereotaxic instrument, used to insert the experimental device to the subject’s brain
STEREOTAXIC SURGERY
• Usually employed in biopsychological studies of laboratory animals
• Falls into one of three categories:
• LESION METHODS
• ELECTRICAL STIMULATION METHODS
• INVASIVE RECORDING METHODS
INVASIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH METHODS
• Method wherein a part of the body is removed,
damaged, or destroyed to determine the
functions of the lesioned structures
• Types of lesions:
• ASPIRATION LESIONS
• RADIO-FREQUENCY LESIONS
• KNIFE CUTS
• CRYOGENIC BLOCKADE
LESION METHOD
is the method of choice for areas of cortical tissue that is
accessible to the eyes and instruments of the surgeon
• Tissue samples are drawn off by suction through a fine-tipped handheld glass pipette
Aspiration lesions
make use of high-frequency current through the target tissue using a
stereotaxically positioned electrode
• The radiofrequency current generates heat, which destroys the
cortical tissue
Radio-frequency lesions
is
used to eliminate conduction in
a nerve or tract
• A device is stereotaxically
positioned in the brain, and the
blade swings out to make the
cut
Knife cuts or sectioning
makes
use of a coolant which is
pumped through an implanted
cryoprobe
• They produce reversible
lesions by temporarily stopping
neural activity by cooling brain
structures
Cryogenic blockade
INTERPRETING LESION EFFECTS
• Lesion effects are difficult to interpret
• Difficult to completely destroy a structure without
producing significant damage to adjacent structures
• Electrical stimulation of neural structures
help identify their functions
• Stimulation is delivered across the two
tips of a bipolar electrode
• Effects are usually opposite of those seen
with lesions located at the same site
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION2
METHOD THREE: INVASIVE
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDING METHODS
• Invasive electrophysiological recording methods include the following:
• EXTRACELLULAR UNIT RECORDING
• INTRACELLULAR UNIT RECORDING
• MULTIPLE-UNIT RECORDING
• INVASIVE EEG RECORDING
provides a record of the firing of a
neuron but has no information on it’s
membrane potential
• are recordings of electrical potentials
produced by a cell, either in extracellular
fluid near the cell of interest, or noninvasively
Extracellular Unit Recording
is the measurement of voltage or current across the membrane of a cell. It typically involves an electrode inserted in the cell and a
reference electrode outside the cell.
• Usually performed on chemically immobilized animals
INTRACELLULAR UNIT RECORDING
makes use of
larger electrode tips, hence, it picks up
signals from many neurons
• Records the total number of action
potentials in a given unit of time (e.g. per
0.1 second)
MULTIPLE-UNIT RECORDING
are
recorded through large implanted
electrodes
• Cortical EEG signals are recorded
through stainless steel skull screws, while
Subcortical EEG signals are recorded
through stereotaxically implanted wire
electrodes
INVASIVE EEG RECORDING
- Fed to the subject
- Injected through a tube into the stomach (intragastrically)
- Injected hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen
(intraperitoneally, IP) into a large muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the
fatty tissue beneath the skin (subcutaneously, SC), or into a large surface
vein (intravenously, IV)
TYPES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
A TUBE THAT CAN BE INSERTED INTO THE BODY, OFTEN FOR THE
DELIVERY OR REMOVAL OF FLUID.
CANNULA
are toxins that are
poisonous or destructive to nerve tissue (causing
neurotoxicity).
NEUROTOXINS (neural poisons)
{(SELECTIVE CHEMICAL LESIONS)
Example of selective neurotoxins:
• kainic acid
• Ibotenic acid
• 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)
• Two techniques to measure chemical activity of the
brain include the following:
MEASURING CHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF THE BRAIN
• 2-Deoxyglucose Technique
• Cerebral Dialysis
• Placing the subject that has been injected with radioactive 2-
DG in a test situation in which it engages in the activity of
interest
- AUTORADIOGRAPHY
TECHNIQUE ONE: 2-DEOXYGLUCOSE
TECHNIQUE
• is the use of X-ray (or occasionally photographic) film to
detect radioactive materials
AUTORADIOGRAPHY
• Is the method of measuring the extracellular
concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving
animals
TECHNIQUE TWO: CEREBRAL DIALYSIS
• Two of the techniques available for this purpose are:
• Immunocytochemistry
• In Situ Hybridization
LOCATING NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND
RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN
• Is a procedure for locating
particular neuroproteins in the
brain by labeling their antibodies
with a dye or radioactive element
and then exposing slices of brain
tissue to the labeled antibodies.
TECHNIQUE ONE:
IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY
• Technique to locate peptides and other proteins in
the brain.
TECHNIQUE TWO: IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION
• Are procedures for creating organisms that lack a
particular gene under investigation
GENE KNOCKOUT TECHNIQUES
GENE REPLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
•Replacing one gene with another.
• Is a protein composed of 238 amino acid residues that exhibits bright
green fluorescence when exposed to blue light.
• was first isolated from a species of jellyfish.
(FANTASTIC FLUORESCENCE AND THE BRAINBOW)
GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN (GFP)
• A single set of procedures developed for the investigation of a
particular behavioral phenomenon.
BEHAVIORAL PARADIGM
THREE IMPORTANT WAYS NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTING CAN HELP BRAIN-DAMAGED PATIENTS
- By assisting in the diagnosis of neural disorders, particularly in
cases in which brain imaging (EEG) have proved equivocal, - By serving as a basis for counseling and caring for the patients;
and - By providing a basis for objectively evaluating the effectiveness
of the treatment and the seriousness of its side effects.
MODERN APPROACH TO NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTING
- Single-test approach
- Standardized-test-battery approach
- Customized-test-battery approach
• Were designed to detect the presence of brain damage.
• To identify patients with psychological problems resulting from
structural brain damage and those with psychological problems
resulting from functional changes to the brain.
SINGLE-TEST APPROACH
• To identify patients with brain-damage but the testing involved
standardized batteries or sets of tests rather than a single test.
• HALSTEAD-REITAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TEST BATTERY
STANDARDIZED-TEST-BATTERY APPROACH
• The most widely used standardized test battery
HALSTEAD-REITAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
TEST BATTERY
• This approach proved highly successful in research, and it soon
spread to clinical practice.
• The objective of this approach is not merely to identify patients
with brain damage but to characterize the nature of the
psychological deficits of each brain-damaged patient.
CUSTOMIZED-TEST-BATTERY APPROACH
• A test of general intelligence is nearly always included in the
battery of neuropsychological tests however, it is a poor
measure of brain damage.
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
• First published in February 1995 by David Wechsler.
• Is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability
in adults and older adolescents.
INTELLIGENCE
THE 11 ORIGINAL SUBTESTS OF THE WAIS
(VERBAL SUBTESTS)
- Information
- Digit Span
- Vocabulary
- Arithmetic
- Comprehension
- Similarities
(performance subtests) - Picture Completion
- Picture Arrangement
- Block Design
- Object Assembly
- Digit Symbol
the subject is
presented with 29 questions of
general knowledge acquired from
culture (for example: Who is the
president of the Philippines?)
Information
Participants must
recall a series of numbers in order.
Three digits are read to the subject
at 1-second intervals, and the
subject is asked to repeat them in
the same order. Two trials are given
at three digits, four digits, five digits,
and so on until the subject fails
both trials at one level.
Digit Span
Participants must
name 35 objects in pictures or
define words presented to them
(for example: tell me the meaning of
corrupt)
Vocabulary
the subject is
presented with 14 arithmetic
questions and must answer them
without the benefit of pencil and
paper (for example: A person with
$28 spends $.50, how much does
he have left?)
Arithmetic
the subject
is asked 16 questions that test the
ability to understand general
principles.
Comprehension
the participant is
presented with pairs of items and is
asked to explain how the items in
each pair are similar.
Similarities
the subject must identify the important
part missing from 20 drawings
Picture Completion
the subject is presented with 10 sets of
cartoon drawings and is asked to
arrange each set so that it tells a
sensible story
Picture Arrangement
the subject is presented with blocks that are red on two
sides, white on two sides, and half red and
half white on the other two. The subject is
shown pictures of nine patterns and is
asked to duplicate them by arranging the
blocks appropriately
Block Design
the subject is asked to put together the pieces of four
simple jigsaw puzzles to form familiar
objects.
Object Assembly
the subject is present with a key that matches
each of a series of symbols with a
different digit. On the same page is
a series of digits and the subject is
given 90 second to write the
correct symbol, according to the
key, next to as many digits as
possible.
Digit Symbol
• It is one of several psychological tests
which can be administered to
patients to measure frontal lobe
dysfunction.
• The test can be administered to
those from 6.5 years to 89 years of
age.
• The WCST, relies upon a number of
cognitive functions including
attention, working memory, and visual
processing
WISCONSIN CARD SORTING TEST
• is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological
processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the
neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes.
• Is predicated on two related assumptions.
• First premise - each complex cognitive process results from the combined activity of
simple cognitive processes called Constituent Cognitive Processes.
• Second premise – each constituent cognitive process is mediated by neural activity
in a particular area of the brain.
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
• It involves obtaining PET or MRI images during several different cognitive
tasks.
• The tasks are designed so that pairs of them differ from each other in
terms of only a single constituent cognitive process.
• The brain activity associated with that process can be estimated by
subtracting the activity in the image associated with one of the two tasks
from the activity in the image associated with the other.
PAIRED-IMAGE SUBTRACTION TECHNIQUE
THREE BEHAVIORAL PARADIGMS USED TO STUDY
THE BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF LABORATORY SPECIES
- Paradigms for the assessment of species-common behaviors
- Traditional conditioning paradigms
- Semi-natural animal learning paradigms
are those that are displayed
by virtually all members of a species, or at least by all those of
the same age and sex
PARADIGMS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SPECIESCOMMON BEHAVIORS
• Species-common behaviors
• Open-Field Test
• Tests of Aggressive and Defensive Behavior
• Test of Sexual Behavior
PARADIGMS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SPECIESCOMMON BEHAVIORS
the subject is placed in a large, barren chamber, and its
activity is recorded.
Open-Field Test
can be measured during combative encounters between the dominant male rat of an established colony and a smaller male intruder.
Tests of Aggressive and Defensive Behavior
Three common measures of male rat sexual behavior are the number of mounts required to achieve intromission, the number of intromissions required to achieve ejaculation, and the interval between ejaculation and the re-initiation of mounting.
Test of Sexual Behavior
• Developed by Ivan Pavlov.
• is a multistep procedure that initially involves presenting an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (e.g. meat powder), which elicits an
unconditioned response (UCR) (e.g. salivation).
TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING PARADIGMS
• Pavlonian Conditioning
Paradigm
• Developed by Burhuss Frederic
Skinner
• The rate at which a particular
voluntary response (such as
lever press) is emitted is
increased by reinforcement or
decreased by punishment.
TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING PARADIGMS
• Operant Conditioning Paradigm
• The following are four common semi-natural learning paradigms
1. Conditioned Taste Aversion
2. Radial Arm Maze
3. Morris Water Maze
4. Conditioned Defensive Burying
SEMI-NATURAL ANIMAL LEARNING PARADIGMS
is the avoidance
response that develops to tastes of food whose
consumption has been followed by illness
SEMI-NATURAL ANIMAL LEARNING PARADIGMS
• Conditioned Taste Aversion
to measure spatial
learning and
memory in rats.
SEMI-NATURAL ANIMAL LEARNING PARADIGMS
•Radial Arm Maze
another semi-natural
learning paradigm that has
been designed to study
the spatial abilities of rats.
SEMI-NATURAL ANIMAL LEARNING PARADIGMS
• Morris Water Maze
rats receive a single
aversive stimulus (e.g. a shock, sir
blast, or noxious odor) from an
object mounted on the wall of the
chamber just above the floor,
which is littered with bedding
material.
SEMI-NATURAL ANIMAL LEARNING PARADIGMS
• Conditioned Defensive Burying
