The Reality Of Persia Flashcards

Question

persian empire representation, east staircase of the apadana at persepolis

Answer 1

More on Persepolis below. For now, we will consider the Eastern Staircase of the Apadana at Persepolis. Built during King Darius I the Great’s reign (r. 522-486), but was finished by Xerxes. In this large hall, the great king received the tributes from all the subjects in the Achaemenid Empire, and gave presents in return. The East Stairs of The Apadana itself has a stunning portrayal of all of the peoples of the Empire sending their tributes to the King of Persia in visually artistic representation. It represents an idealised portrayal of Empire, demonstrating and celebrating the Persian Peace.

Answer 2

The East Staircase of the Apadana is an extraordinary celebration of the diversity of the Persian Empire. It depicts each (23 in total) ethnicity in all their diverse glory. The Nuabians appear with African physical features, the Saka appear with their distinctive pointed hats, they all wear distinctive clothing. We can assume these portraits would have looked even more diverse with different colours in their original form.

Answer 3

Each country is represented bringing their tribute to the King in artistic form with a unique set of characteristics for each group. For instance the Bactrians bring their camels from Northern Afghanistan; while the Nubians carry an ivory tusk. The Lydians bring Jewellery, whilst the Greeks bring wool and fabrics and pottery. Each people have a particular feature that is distinctive to them.

Answer 4

Every ethnic group appears walking hand in hand with their masters and is led by the hand of a Persian. We know this figure to be a Persian since they wear an Akinakes in their belts and wear distinctive Persian clothing. This representation is quite different from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Roman representations of empire, which show the subjects as POWs or defeated. Here we see a physical manifestation of the mutually beneficial nature of the Persian Empire.

Answer 5

Sculpting these images in stone make the empire appear to be a timeless institution. Stone conveys permanence and the permanent nature of Persian rule.

Answer 6

By carefully depicting the empire in all its diversity, the Persians were conveying their power. As tribute bearers or visitors walked to the Apadana they would see, all around them, the great diverse Empire the Persians had created. The Staircase, then, was also a display of Persian power over a diverse range of people.

Answer 7

A similar message is conveyed at the base of the Palace of Darius in Susa (more on this below). Similarly, to the East Staircase, what is promoted here is an idealised image of the Persian Empire – a range of peoples working together with their unique skills for the benefit of all. But most importantly, under the king’s service.

Answer 8

In the charter, Darius celebrates the fact that the workers stem from different regions. The stone cutters were Greek, the goldmsiths were Medes and Egyptians, the wood workers were the Sardians and the Egyptians, the brickworkers were Babylonians, etc. These range of peoples all contribute their individual skill to produce a wonderful palace.

Answer 9

Darius is at pains to emphasise the origins of the resources used in the construction of the palace. The timber, he claims, stems from Lebanon. The gold from Sardis. The Lapis Lazuli from Sogdiana. The Turquoise stone from Chorasmia. The ebony from Egypt. The ivory from Ethiopia. The stone from Elam, etc.

Answer 10

Diverse skills and resources, when brought together (only under Imperial rule) can create something spectacular.

Answer 11

the king celebrates the diversity of his empire as at Persepolis.

Answer 12

More cynically, the king is expressing his vast authority. Being able to call on a vast range of people, and draw on their resources, to create a Palace for himself, was a means of expressing his power. No one reading the foundation charter could come away with any other impression.

Answer 13

“all the people of Babylon, the whole of the land of Sumer and Akkad, princes and governors knelt before him, kissed his feet, rejoiced at his kingship”. (18) and that Cyrus spared the people from ‘disaster and oppression’ (19).

Answer 14

“without battle and fighting he let him enter Babylon. He saved his city Babylon from its oppression; he handed over to him Nabonidus, the kind who did not revere him”. (17) this is repeated in line 24 where Cyrus emphasises his ‘peaceful’ conquest.

Answer 15

. Later Cyrus talks of returning the gods to their rightful places, and of rebuilding walls, repairing the city gate. The city had opened its gates to Cyrus. All-in-all Cyrus frames himself as a liberator of a repressed peoples. He frames himself as a legitimate and just ruler who is tolerant of local conditions.

Answer 16

the fact that they were ordered to be produced by the Persian king. In this sense, they could be seen as a form of royal propaganda entirely unrelated to the reality of the lived experience of Persian subjects. We could, therefore write off all of the preceding discussion as simply an ‘imagined reality’.

Answer 17

The Cylinder reads that everyone is entitled to freedom of thought and choice and all individuals should pay respect to one another. The historical charter also underscores the necessity of fighting oppression, defending the oppressed, respecting human dignity, and recognizing human rights. The Cyrus Cylinder bears testimony to the fact that the Iranian nation has always been the flag-bearer of justice, devotion and human values throughout history. Values like free speech, religious liberties, and political liberation from tyrannical regimes. This is one of the first examples in human history of a leader thinking about how he was going to govern a multi-cultural state. Was he going toing to repress culture or respect it? Well, Cyrus firmly decided to respect local traditions. He respected local gods, local language, local frames of reference.

Answer 18

argues that the Persian King ‘while maintaining the domination of the Persian nobility, he increased the distance between himself and his subjects…. The king lived largely in seclusion…. When he met his subjects or counsellors, there seems to have been no frank discussions but monologues addressed with due reverence to the king’. (p. 132) in other words, the king was secluded, lived in luxury, and was detached from the day to day governing of Empire.

Answer 19

, presents a more positive and sympathetic view of the Persian King. He notes that ‘the stereotypical view of the detached or cloistered King, prominent in much twentieth century scholarship, has become much less compelling. There is ample evidence to assert that the King was well-informed of his satraps’ activities, and that a satrap in good standing (i.e. one not in open rebellion) consistently deferred to the King on any matter beyond his jurisdiction or prerogative

Answer 20

Created by Darius · Twenty satrapies set up, each with an appointed satrap to govern the region · Their main role was in the collection of tribute from their region for the king · Herodotus provides a detailed account of the specific tribute that each group paid. For instance, the Ionians (et al) paid 300 talents of silver, while the Cilician satrapy provided 360 white horses and five hundred talents of silver. As Herodotus’ account gets further and further from Greece the story of tribute payments becomes more and more exotic. By the time he reaches the Indians he claims they paid 360 talents of gold dust.

Answer 21

Firstly, Darius did not create the system of satrapies. The Nabonidus Chronicle illustrates that Cyrus appointed Gobryas as governor of Bablyon, showing its existence stemmed from the beginning of Empire. It is likely Darius reformed it to suit his reinvention of the Empire. · Secondly, Herodotus over-emphasises the extent to which it was about extracting wealth for Persian benefit. In doing so, he ignores other complex parts.

Answer 22

argues that ‘the satrapal system was very flexible and the Persians often adapted pre-existing situations to suit their purposes best’. He argues the flexible attitude of the Persians was key to the success of the Satrapy system.

Answer 23

the satrap of Egypt during the late fifth century. The archive provides an account, preserved by the arid landscape of Egypt, providing an insight into the world of Arshama and the nature by which he governed the region. The sources are a mixture of both highly personal concerns and the day-to-day role

Answer 24

in a message to an official ‘Nakhthor’, Arshama threatens him for his failures. Arshama, unhappy about the failure of Nakthor to protect his property, orders him ‘guard my personnel and goods forcefully’ and to ‘be diligent’. The satrap also admonishes his officials for failing to take advantage of unrest in Egypt to further his own interests (related to property ownership).

Answer 25

Ankhohapi and Psamsek were both appointed by Arshama as servants and granted ‘grants’ (finances?) by Arshama.

Answer 26

Providing finances to officials

Answer 27

In one text, Arshama is asked by a servant to punish slaves for theft. Arshama agrees to this request and orders a named individual to carry out the punishment.

Answer 28

The sophistication of the Persian administration makes for a powerful argument against any assumption about the primitiveness of the empire.

Answer 29

epresent a collection of clay tablets found around Persepolis. There are just 150 tablets referring to the period 492-474, but there are between 4,000 and 30,000 referring to the period 509-493 BCE in Darius’ reign. The sheer number of tablets from Darius’ reign suggests an extensive administrative system at the cultural and political centre of Persepolis. The survival of the clay tablets is important to note. The survival of parchments and wax boards are extremely rare and almost always destroyed. We can assume there would have been many more records but they have not survived

Answer 30

The man in charge of the Persepolis administration, Parnaka, appears to have been Darius’ uncle. He oversaw a hierarchy of leading officials, who in turn supervised a number of junior officials. there was a complex administrative hierarchy designed for the good governance of the empire. Instructions clearly followed a chain of command and there was a clear allocation of responsibility and accountability.

Answer 31

The tablets provide an insight into how officials were paid for their services through rations. Workers – labelled kurtash – were distributed with rations depending on certain criteria. Jobs performed, locality, age, gender, and, for women, if they had a male or female son, all had an impact on the amount of rations provided. women bearing baby boys were provided with more rations, giving insight into gender ideology in Persia – PF338. Specifically, the woman bearing a male received 20 quarts of grain, while the woman bearing a female only received 10

Answer 32

Most of the tablets convey mundane information about the collection, storage, and distribution of foodstuffs and livestock. But they also provide information about the organisation of labour, fiscal management, demography, and institutional operations. All of which provide a sense of the administrative complexity of the Empire.

Answer 33

The Persians, keeping to their Indo-European roots, were a nomadic horseback peoples, not city dwellers. Prior to the Empire of Cyrus, Persian ‘cities’ did not really exist in the same way as Mesopotamian cities existed. The Persian court, even during Cyrus’ reign was a nomadic court which travelled around parts of Persia in different seasons. For instance, in the winter they may reside in Susa or Babylon on the low-lying plains; while in the summer they took to the mountains at Ecbatana. The cities of Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa were all historic cities which had strong histories in their own right. Yet, it appears that successive Persian leaders were very keen to create an imperial capital with monumental architecture to symbolise the grandeur of the Persian Empire. Two cities of Parsagadae and Persepolis were most important because they were constructed during the reigns of the Persian kings.

Answer 34

Persepolis was established during Darius’ reign, beginning in 518 BCE. It is located 40 kilometres south of Parsagadae. Construction of the site continued into the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes and even beyond with smaller additions. The site itself is a 450x300-meter raised platform known as the terrace. The central part of the terrace is 18 metres from the ground. It was constructed using huge stone blocks. On top of the terrace are multiple buildings which were built in different phases. More on the individual buildings below, but as a brief summary: Buildings on the site include the Apadana (audience hall), treasury, palaces, and the hall of 100 columns (AKA the Throne Hall). The tallest of the columns were around 20 metres high, making the total structure around 40 metres off the plain.

Answer 35

claims the sites main aim of the site was as an ‘administrative and ceremonial centre, a focal point for the King’s displays of royal ideology and of the scope and grandeur of Persian power’ (141)

Answer 36

the PFT and PTT mentioned above illustrate that Persepolis was the centre of royal administration. Many people were employed to keep the gold and silver shining: from the Fortification Tablets, it is known that in 467 BCE, no less than 1348 people were employed in the treasury. There also appears to be a sophisticated system of running the site with Parnaka at the top and a series of officials below him.

Answer 37

Susa was a historic city with a rich history prior to the Persian Empire. Settlement at Susa can be traced back to 4,200 BCE and was the historic capital of the Elamites. Prior to the reign of Darius, no Achaemenid building took place on the site. Yet, Darius undertook significant construction efforts at Susa. The scope of these efforts, alongside the concurrent developments at Persepolis, reflect the cultural importance of Susa to the Empire. As at Persepolis, the palace at Susa was built on an artificial terrace overlooking the local plains. The terrace was formed by the ruins of an Elamite temple.

Answer 38

that is 15 metres high in a square block. The edges of the Palace complex were emphasised by a series of ditches that may have held water during times of heavy rain.

Answer 39

. Little remains of the gate/building besides the foundations, though it is likely the gate would have resembled the Gate of all nations at Persepolis. The most spectacular object found at the gate is the Egyptian-made statue of Darius. It is believed two of these would have stood flanking the entrance to the gate itself.

Answer 40

Entering the Palace complex there are three large open courtyards which led to the most famous building in Susa, it’s "Apadana", the audience hall of the Palace of Darius. It was accessible from the south through the second and third courts of this palace. The audience hall measured 109x109 meters and had thirty-six large columns that supported the roof. was built together with the palace by Darius I the Great (r.522-486). This can be deduced from the inscription known as A2Sa, which was written for Artaxerxes II Mnemon (r.404-358), who finished the restoration of the complex after a great fire during the reign of his grandfather

Answer 41

represented a series of living quarters for the Persian court. Spectacular art such as the Glazed-brick friezes from Darius I’s palace at Susa (source 32) have been found here. In a famous inscription called the Darius Susa Foundation Charter (DSf), discovered in the room he describes both his reason for building the Palaces and how all nations of his empire contributed to the building (see source 7). From a Greek perspective, Susa is portrayed as the main capital of the Persians. The city forms the setting of The Persians (472 BC), an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre. It where Atossa and the court remain whilst Xerxes was away, and it is where Xerxes returns in his rags at the end of the play. Similarly, Herodotus portrays Susa with similar importance. He says that it was the final location of the Royal Road leading all the way to Sardis. Yet, Greeks probably over-emphasised the importance of Susa. There is no administrative record for the site (unlike Persepolis). While the court certainly stayed in Susa from time-to-time, it is highly unlikely this was the primary location of the court. The royal road, as archaeological evidence supports, certainly led to Persepolis.

Answer 42

At Susa Darius created an Apadana and expanded the Royal Palace. In a famous inscription (known as Darius’ Foundation Charter) discovered in the room that is known as the King's Hall, he describes both the reason for its construction and the means by which it was constructed. In the inscription, Darius presents an idealised image of Empire

Answer 43

As at Bisitun and elsewhere, Darius proclaims that his kingship is supported by Ahruamazda and that he is an Achaemenid. He states that (DFS §5): ‘At Susa a very excellent work was ordered, a very excellent work was brought to completion. May Ahuramazda protect me, and Hystaspes my father and my country’. Also (DFS §2) ‘Ahuramazda brought me aid. What is ordered (to be done), this he accomplished for me. I achieved all of what I did by the grace of Ahuramazda’.

Answer 44

, more importantly, Darius provides a long and detailed account of how all nations of his empire contributed to the building. Regardless of whether or not the statements below are true, they convey a message which is important to Darius’ belief. He provides a long list of the material and people which contributed to the palace. Material comes from across the empire. E.g. Lapis Lazuli from Sogdiana, Cedar from Lebanon, Silver from Egypt. But also, the people building the Palace come from across the Empire. E.g. Stone cutters were Ionians and Sardians, goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians, Brick workers were Babylonians. The Empire, therefore, is beneficial because it brings together both diverse resources and diverse skill

Answer 45

. By conveying the range of people, resources, and geography, Darius is celebrating the Empire as a great thing which he commands and benefits from. As he says, he ‘ordered’ the completion of the work, thereby conveying his power. The king could call on a range of people to perform the tasks and bring the resources he demanded of them and they duly complied. By brining people and resources from a range of different parts of the Empire, Darius could convey both his strength and authority, as well as the notion of respect from all parts of the Empire. It represents a piece of imperial propaganda designed to promote the benefits of Empire.

Answer 46

the primary achievement of Achaemenid art was to facilitate the growth of art from other cultures. When the Persians incorporated new land into their Empire, they did not quash artistic expression but consciously incorporated it into their Empire. Persians consciously ‘used’ and encouraged the various skills of their subjects. Darius celebrated this in both his Susa Foundation Charter, celebrating the varied skills of the different ethnicities who contributed to the Palace. Similarly, with his statue, Darius was proud to make use of Egyptian sculptures. The Persians, too, proud to incorporate Assyrian Lamassu into their Palace art

Answer 47

The Oxus Treasures were found in 1877 in the hands of merchants on the Oxus river (ancient Satrapy of Bactria, modern-day Afghanistan). These merchants appear to have acquired it through looting of sites – perhaps the palaces of Bactria or a local temple. The metalwork found includes 51 golden plaques made of thin metal sheet, to human and animal figures in gold and silver, and other objects like rings, figurines, daggers, stamps and seals, bracelets and jewellery. Unfortunately, when the metalwork was produced and where it was produced is not known. As such, any conclusions made about the object must be treated with caution relating to the question marks about their provenance. Assuming these are Achaemenid-era objects, which most scholars do, we can learn a considerable amount from each of them.

Answer 48

Based of a scene from the East Staircase of the Apadana in Persepolis, Lydians are shown carrying similar armlets to the Persian King as tribute. It may therefore have been the case that these items, or at least items similar to it, were a valuable form of tribute by the Persian King. For the king to depict this in the art at Persepolis suggests that there were highly regarded objects produced by the Lydians.

Answer 49

y, the use of Gold conveys the wealth of the object. The Lydians were renowned for their use of Gold, as noted by Herodotus. The king of Lydia before the conquest of Cyrus, Croesus, was noted for his use of gold. Archaeological records suggest the Lydians were the first to make use of gold.

Answer 50

The object conveys the skill of the artist who produced it. The fine details of the griffins head, wings, horns, and neck show a high level of technical skill. Note the honeycomb texture to the Griffins. It is widely believed bright blue precious stones, lapis lazuli, would have been inlaid into the wings/neck, further emphasising the wealth of the object

Answer 51

They were designed to sit over the elbow, making the person wearing the object appear adorned with gold. Furthermore, Herodotus re-enforces the importance of this object for the Persian kings. For instance, Herodotus discusses the distinctive feature of the Persians as being ‘they were distinguished by the amount of gold which they wore’ (7.83).

Answer 52

Whilst there is much that remains unknown about the meaning to the Persians, other ancient stories associate griffins with guardians of wealth and protectors against evil forces. Perhaps the Persians made the same associations. We can conclude by noting that this object was a highly regarded prestige symbol, produced as tribute by the Persian king’s subject for the glorification of their leader. Their highly-regarded nature can be emphasised by their depiction in stone on the East Staircase to the Apadana.

Answer 53

The origin of this object is less clear-cut, though there is a suggestion that the object was made / inspired by the Greeks, suggesting a further range of diversity in Persian art. Apparently Greek features include (1) the nudity of the figure, which is extremely rare in Persian art and more common in Greek art. (2) The similarity between the design of this object and the Greek mirror handles which generally have a similar design. Yet, if the object was Greek-inspired it is worth noting that the apparent Phyrgian cap (in gold) is much more distinctive of eastern cultures, including the Persians.

Answer 54

The object is made of silver with a headdress covered in gold. The seam around the edge of the headdress indicates where two sheets of gold foil have been burnished together. This extravagant use of expensive metals for a relatively ordinary ornament is indicative of the wealth of Empire

Answer 55

Based on the V-incision on the back of the head suggest the object was originally placed up against a sharp object. There is debate about what this could have been, but it appears to object would have been a decorative piece. Most likely is that the object held a metallic (copper) mirror originally. Likewise, the back of the object is almost entirely flat, and would therefore have been placed against a wall as an ornament. Interestingly, Darius’ Susa Foundation Charter states that Darius’ Palace was full of ornaments from Greece. Perhaps this is an example of one.

Answer 56

Once more, the object shows the skill of the artist. Small details, such as the ears being pierced showcase the technical skill of the artist. Further, the clenched fists pierced with vertical circular holes are suggestive that the figure would have originally held up an object, perhaps the ‘mirror’ explained above.

Answer 57

While the person who made the object is unknown, the styles convey a range of different influences. The style seems to be influenced by Egypt originally. The stylised eyebrows, the hollow almond-shaped eyes, and the tight curls are seen on earlier Egyptian art It was normal for Egyptians to place lapis lazuli in their representation of eyes in sculptures – it is highly likely a similar precious metal or item would have been used for the eyes here. Furthermore, we know already that Darius’ Statue was from Egypt, perhaps the same is true here.

Answer 58

. The use of lapis lazuli as the material stems from Media. Once Cyrus conquered the region in 550BCE the lapis lazuli mines, which had been a wealthy export good for the region (particularly to Egypt) then came under Cyrus’ control. To construct the statue in lapis lazuli was a symbol of wealth and grandeur in itself, but also represented the control of this particular region. The statues worth would have been considerable. Furthermore, the eyes are indented. There is space for other objects, presumably expensive, to be inlaid. It is speculated by Shepard that the manner in which the neck ends suggests it would have been mounted on a body to begin with – she speculates this may have been gold or ivory. This may have further reflected the vast reach of the empire of a range of goods.

Answer 59

The object illustrates significant artistic skill in the representation of the features of the face. Note the tightly curled hair in uniform spiral patterns. Note the stylised eyebrows and the soft facial features.

Answer 60

The placement of the object in the Apadana suggests they were an important royal official. Whilst the title of the object suggests ‘prince’ = ‘male’, the object may in fact depict a female princess. Llewellyn-Jones suggests that this may have been a royal women (or a eunuch). Others have claimed it may represent Xerxes. We will never know for certain

Answer 61

Typical narratives of Political and military interactions between Greeks and the Persians suggests both were ‘enemies’ Artistic and cultural interactions convey a different story. Instead, they suggest Persians had considerable respect for Greek art / artists. There are definite signs of Greek influence, both explicit and implied, across a range of sources of Persian art.

Answer 62

The Statuette of a naked youth from the Oxus Treasure is one example. The 30 cm statue made from gold and silver has a pose that is very similar to Greek statues. Dalton (1964) compares the style of the figure to 5th century BC Greek mirror-handles which are themselves miniaturised versions of contemporary votive figures. See the Statuette (left) and a Greek mirror handle (right) Likewise, the nudity of the figure is very unusual in Persian art and was far more common to Greek art. Perhaps this is a further sign of Greek influence.

Answer 63

The technique of making the object may have originated in Greece. The person who made the object best mirrors the techniques that were being used in Greece at this time. For instance, the Archaic New York Kouros from Attica (590-580 BCE) bares a striking resemblance. When comparing the two, we can see similarities in the (a) stylised eyebrows, (B) the almond eyes, (C) the hair blocks, (D) the round shape of the face, etc.

Answer 64

Darius’ inscription is at pains to note the peoples who contributed to the building of his Palace and the manner in which they contributed. He notes (DFS § 4) that the Assyrians brought timber, silver and ebony was brought from Egypt, goldsmiths came from medes, for instance. But, most importantly for us, Darius explicitly notes that ‘The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians[= Greeks] and Lydians’. Here we have more explicit evidence of the conscious use of Greeks in architecture. Given Darius’ lists the particular skills and talents of the peoples of the empire within the manner in which they contributed to the construction, this suggests that the Greeks were respected for their masonry skills. Cook uses this evidence to suggest (163) ‘the imperial architecture and ornamentation of the Achaemenids was a composite which had no firm basis in any native or national tradition’.

Answer 65

The techniques and tools used were common to those in Eastern Greece – namely, the setting and jointing of the blocks with clamps and dowels but also the columns and mouldings, according to Cook were ‘Basically Greek’ (161). Anathyrosis joints (Nylander, 1970, pp. 59-61) and dove-tailed iron and lead clamps, both only appeared at Pasargadae after their introduction in the Greek world (Nylander, 1970, pp. 63-66). These innovations facilitated the production of the finely jointed and finished stone platforms, staircases, doorways, wall socles, floors, and stone columns, each of which was to become a hallmark of Achaemenid architecture from about 540 BCE onwards.

Answer 66

takes this to suggest ‘Greek work would have appealed strongly to Persian tastes’.

Answer 67

it illustrates Luxury Persian tableware. It would have been used to pour wine, with a hole in the chest acting as the pourer. · Use of expensive materials for everyday use. The use of silver, gold, and other material in the eye socket which is indented. · Griffin symbolism once more. as noted previously, they were seen as guardian of wealth. · Significant artistic skill. Note the detail of the plants portrayed around the rim of the vessel, and the griffin. It is in essence an example of luxury Persian tableware, showcasing fine metal-working skills in a design that it both pretty and functional.

Answer 68

The style appears to have been strongly influenced by both the Elamite Zigguarts, and the Egyptian Pyramids. These two influences help to explain triangular design of the tomb