Greeks And Barbarians

Question 1

archaic greek ideas of the barbarian

Answer 1

Homer’s only mention of the term comes in his description of the Carian people who fought against the Greeks. He calls them ‘Barbarophonoi’ (2.867) meaning they talk in a foreign language. The term originated from the notion that the non-Greeks sounded unintelligible – like ‘ba-ba’. Prior to the fifth century BCE, the term appears to have been a primarily linguistic one, without the cultural associations of the classical era. In other words, ‘Barbarian’ was associated with non-Greek languages rather than a ‘barbaric’ culture. Greeks in the archaic era were quite open to foreign cultures through hybridisation (blending of elements from different cultures

Question 2

the new york korous and the ranofer forth dynasty

Answer 2

Greeks also seems to have been willing to adopt aspects of African and Asian art and culture. During the so-called ‘orientalising period’ (750 to 580) Greek art was greatly influenced by eastern, and specifically Near Eastern and Egyptian, ideas, myths, and decorative styles. One example is sculpture. The New York Korous (left) is a Greek sculpture from the 600s BCE. It is clearly heavily influenced by Egyptian sculpture from thousands of years before. Consider the similarities with the sculpture of Ranofer, fourth dynasty, Old Kingdom, Egypt, c. 2400 BCE (right). The similar posture, straight-arms, head position, led position, body type, and the design of the face are evident. These two examples appear to suggest that the Greeks viewed non-Greeks in a relatively neutral or indeed even positive manner insofar as they were willing to adopt customs and artistic styles from them.

Question 3

how does heroditus suggest archaic greeks hybridised, 2.49 the festival of dionysus

Answer 3

“For the similarities between the Egyptian and Greek worship of Dionysus cannot be a coincidence. Otherwise the practices would be more recognisable as Greek rites and less recently adopted.” Herodotus argues that a Greek, Melampus, adopted the customs from Egypt and introduced the customs into Greeks.

Question 4

how does heroditus suggest archaic greeks hybridised, the names of the gods 2.50

Answer 4

“The names of nearly all the gods came over to Greece from Egypt. I have found out from enquiries that the names came from the barbarians.” Most of these stem from Egypt, but some stem from the Pelasgians.

Question 5

how does heroditus suggest archaic greeks hybridised, religous customs 2.51

Answer 5

“These customs, along with others which I will mention, were adopted from the Egyptians by the Greeks

Question 6

scholar paul cartledge, meaning of barbarian

Answer 6

argues that the meaning of the ‘Barbarian’ changed in the period between Homer and Herodotus so that by the 450s BCE the Greeks viewed the world in two binary categories: Greeks and Barbarians. All non-Greeks were lumped together collectively as ‘barbarians’ and tarred with pejorative stereotypes of being naturally, unalterably, inferior beings. He argues there were two processes which led to this occurring:2 (1) Colonisation and (2) the Persian Wars

Question 7

growth of greekness and barbarism, colonisation

Answer 7

n worked to promote ‘barbarians’ in a negative sense, but also promoted ‘Greekness’ in a positive sense. On the negative: The process of Greek colonisation from 750 BCE onwards resulted in cultural contacts which otherwise had not been known. These cultural contacts highlighted the differences between the Greek way of life and the non-Greek way of life. Contact, then, emphasised how foreign the barbarian was. The process of Hellenisation provided a sense of Greek ‘superiority’. We see, for instance, the Syracusans enslaved the local Killyrioi population of Sicily. Greek material culture tends to replace other cultures in the regions they colonised. This created some negative cultural stereotypes for Greeks of what the ‘barbarians’ were – i.e. inferior.

On the growth of ‘Greekness’: While this process occurred, the common religion of the Greeks and their association with ‘mother cities’, and panehellenic shrines such as Delphi and Olympia served to bind Greeks into a shared sense of identity. This served to positively encourage a sense of ‘Greekness’ and one which was superior in some way to the ‘barbarian’.

Question 8

the role of the historical context in the invention of the barbarian

Answer 8

Where all scholars agree is that by the Classical era (479-323) Greeks had ‘invented’ a barbarian with negative characteristics. Part of this process, as we have seen above, was the process of colonisation. This exposed Greeks to barbarians and exposed cultural differences. Yet, as we have seen this cannot be the whole story because Greeks hybridised their culture with barbarian ones in some cases.

Instead, what was of most importance in the invention of the barbarian was the Persian Wars. Aeschylus’ Persians represents the first occasion where the concept of the barbarian as the Greeks’ inferior opposite (effeminate, cowardly, stupid, emotional, etc.) comes through. It is no coincidence that the play takes place just 8 years (472BCE) after the events it claims to portray.

Question 9

Persian wars impacting the invention of the barbarian, greeks needing to be united to win

Answer 9

The Greeks were divided in the build up and during the Persian Wars. Greeks vs Barbarians served as an ideological tool to encourage unity

Question 10

Persian wars impacting the invention of the barbarian, persia was the enemy of some greeks

Answer 10

The consequence, as with most wars between different peoples, was that negative stereotypes were labelled on the enemy. The Persians represented the united barbarian threat to Greece. By portraying them negatively, the Greeks were reminded of the righteousness in opposing them. In essence, the ‘barbarian’ is a form of Greek propaganda

Question 11

Persian wars impacting the invention of the barbarian, greek victory gave persians a sense of superiority

Answer 11

Herodotus’ account of the Persian Wars builds Persia to be a supreme power over a vast range of peoples. Yet, it was the Greeks – the plucky and, indeed, disunited underdogs – who defeated Persia not once, but twice. Greek ideas of superiority over the Persians therefore developed from the wars….

Question 12

Persian wars impacting the invention of the barbarian, the persian wars gave greeks a shared sense of identity and political unity (cartledge)

Answer 12

The Persian Wars helped to solidify a shared sense of ‘Greekness’. This political unity engendered a shared experience of togetherness and opposition to the barbarian. Whereas before language, culture and customs were shared, it was only during the Persian wars where a sense of shared freedom opposed to the tyranny of the Persians developed.

Prior (and during) to the Persian Wars, Greek association with their poleis ran directly counter to a Greek sense of Pan-Hellenic identity. Greeks belonging to other poleis were much the same as barbarians in that they were defined simply by the fact that they were not citizens of the polis. Yet, the Persian Wars meant that ‘being Greek’ became a legitimate identity. Greeks came together, to some extent, to fend off a common enemy – the barbarian. The real ‘other’ were the barbarians – not fellow Greeks. In this sense, it took the ‘barbarian’ to unite the Greeks.

Question 13

impact of the delian league- hall

Answer 13

While the Persian wars undoubtedly had a key role in inventing the barbarian, it alone does not fully explain why the idea continued to be so important in the decades that followed. Edith Hall agrees of the importance of the Persian Wars. She states that the polarisation of Greeks and Barbarians only occurs after the Persian Wars have begun. Aeschylus’ Persians, produced in 472 is the earliest example. Yet, Hall also argues the Delian League was crucial in the invention (and perpetuation) of the Barbarian.3 She says: “although it was the collective action of numerous Greek city-states in the Persian wars which produced the concept of the barbarian, it was the Panhellenic ideology of the Delian League and latterly of the Athenian Empire which ensured its preservation”.

Question 14

delian league after the persian wars

Answer 14

After the Persians Wars the Athenians developed the Delian League, a collection of poleis who would provide money and ships for war against the Persians (Thucydides 1.96.1). initially, there was a great deal of unity. They had considerable success in freeing the Ionians from Persian Rule. Yet, rebellion and disunity quickly hindered the alliance. Initially in 471 Naxos revolted in an attempt to leave to League. Then, in 465 Samos attempted the same. Both revolts were crushed by Athens which used the League to become an Empire. During this period, Athens is deemed to have transitioned from the leading member of a League of voluntary allies towards an Empire which compelled other cities to remain. Athens collected tribute from the city states under their control and repressed them if they rebelled.

Question 15

significance of Aeschylus persians

Answer 15

performed on the southern slope of the Acropolis with the burnt wreckage of the old Acropolis behind them, won first prize in the drama festival. The performance reminded Greeks of the hubris of Xerxes and the otherness of the Persian

Question 16

athens made great efforts to build the Parthenon in 431, persian war significance

Answer 16

magnificent temple, which was completed in 431BCE. The Temple replaced the one that was destroyed by the Persians and suitably represented Greek triumphs over barbarians. The friezes show Greeks and their Gods triumphing over the Amazons, Trojans, Giants, and Centaurs. The new Temple of Athena Nike, completed 425, depicted scenes from the Persian Wars. Like the south frieze (right) showing Greeks heroically defeating Persians.

Question 17

why was it in athens intrest to promote the barbarian

Answer 17

*As with all Empires, there needed to be a sense of purpose – an ideology justifying its raison d’etre. For Athens, this continued to be the threat of the barbarian. Athenian propaganda required the continue threat of the barbarian, so continued to highlight it.

· Politically, therefore, it was in Athens interest to justify their Empire on the grounds that Athens protected Greeks from barbarians – and these were the ’enemy’. The Athenians could justifiably claim to have aided the Ionians in their revolt in the 490s, and to have played an important role in the victory over Persia during the Persian Wars.

· As loyalty to the League reduced, Athens needed to use propaganda of Greek vs Barbarian to maintain unity

Question 18

interpretation of the eurymedon vase. 460

Answer 18

“Eurymedon vase is a well-aimed joke on recent unexpected but fortuitous political and military events which demonstrate, yet again, the natural superiority of the Athenians

Question 19

role of binary opposites in the greek world

Answer 19

Binary oppositions are systems of thought by which two theoretical opposites are strictly defined and set off against one another. They are mutually exclusive.

· (p. 12-3): “The Greeks … constructed their identities negatively, by means of a series of polarized oppositions of themselves to what they were not.”

i.e. Greek vs Barbarian; free (citizen) vs slave; men vs women

• Greeks were defined by not being barbarians, whilst Barbarians were defined by not being Greeks. Here we have the invention of the barbarian. The ‘barbarian’ was the anti-Greek. The Greek was the anti-Barbarian. The Greeks have a set of characteristics, whilst the barbarians have a set of other characteristics. We, today, would classify these as learnt (nurture), yet, the Greeks deemed them

natural differences (nature).

• The ‘out groups’ (barbarians, women, slaves) have many negative characteristics in common, for instance barbarians and women. ‘male barbarians… [were] construed as naturally effeminate’. Similar innate defects make slavery a natural institution. (p.12

Question 20

how greeks create binary opposites, heroditus 1.1

Answer 20

“This is the account of the research of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, written so that, as time passes, events may not fade from the memory of mankind and so that the great and wonderful achievements both of Greeks and barbarians might be remembered, most especially the reason why they came into conflict with each other”

Question 21

how greeks create binary opposites, eurepidies media

Answer 21

Jason: “what help you gave me I am grateful for. But in return for saving me, you gained more than you gave, as I will demonstrate. First: the country you left is primitive, but now you live in Greece. You now know what justice means, enjoy the benefits of the law, not the rule of force. All of Greece has come to know your talents: you are famous. If you still lived at the end of the world, no one would mention you”.

Question 22

how greeks create binary opposites, aeschylus persoans. lines 391-407

Answer 22

Messenger describes the battle of Salamis to Atossa: “the Persians knew their error; fear gripped every man. They were no fugitives who sang that terrifying pean, but Hellenes charging with courageous hearts to battle. The loud trumpet flamed along their ranks. At once their frothy oars moved with a single pulse, beating the salt waves to the bo’suns’ chants; and soon their whole fleet hove clear into view; their right wing first, in precise order, next their whole array came on, and at that instant a great shout beat on our ears: ‘Forward you sons of Hellas! Set your country free! Set free your sons, your wives, tombs of your ancestors, and temples of your gods. All is at stake: now fight! Then from our side in answer rose the manifold clamour of Persian voices; and the hour had come”.

Question 23

binary opposite, the importance of slavery in greece

Answer 23

Slavery was hugely important in classical Greece. Indeed, the great classicist Moses Finley argues that ‘slavery was the basic element in Greek civilization’.6 All the major Greek poleis were based on slavery. The Spartans had their helots – a permanently enslaved local population. The Athenians bought and sold slaves – usually of foreign origins (known as chattel slavery). Finley goes a step further and argues that it is only with the presence of slaves that Greek politics flourished. Slavery allowed an elite to be completely free from any preoccupation with economic matters than to a labour force that they bought and sold. Slavery allowed Athenian ‘democracy’ to flourish because it liberated the citizens from the mundane tasks needed to sustain themselves.

Slavery and citizenship/freedom went hand in hand. It was only the presence of slaves that enabled the fiction of citizen equality to be maintained. Slaves ensured that citizens were not obliged to perform domestic tasks for others or work in craft shops or mines where they would both be deprived of leisure and have been quite apparently subject to, rather than on a par with, other citizens. Slaves were mostly involved in jobs that required a human ‘tool’ – not a skilled worker. So, we find evidence of slaves working extensively in mines around Athens and Helots working the fields in Sparta. The political situation in both Sparta and Athens required an underclass distinct from the main citizens who then allowed them to focus on politics. ‘The graphic exploitation of slaves, in enabling the visible exploitation of citizens to be avoided, upheld an ideology’.7 The ideology of freedom, then, required the acceptance of slaves. Oppression and freedom went hand in hand. Slavery allowed citizens to be free from being burdened by other citizens.

Question 24

the link between slavery and barbarians in the greek world view

Answer 24

A major contributor to the association between barbarians and servility/weakness – was the fact the barbarians Greeks were most likely to come into contact with were slaves. Slaves, particularly in Athens, tended to be barbarians. This made it was convenient to conclude that barbarians tended to be slave-like. As a result, the Greeks presented foreigners as ‘slaves’ to their king.

Evidence for slaves being foreign is extensive, particularly in Athens. Athenians seem to have sourced many of their slaves from Thrace – modern-day Bulgaria. This features heavily in Herodotus’ account of Athenian slaves. At 5.6 Herodotus claims Thracians were so poor that they sold their surplus children into slavery. All three non-Greek slaves Herodotus discusses are Thracians (2.134, 2.135, and 4.95-6).

But it is not just Herodotus where evidence of foreign slaves in Athens comes from. The so-called Attic Stela records the official slaves sold at a public auction in 415 BCE. The slaves – 50 In total – were taken from their owner for a crime of desecration. One of the records mentions that of sixteen slaves owned by Kephisodoros, five were Thracians, whilst the others were from 5 other national groups (Thracians being the largest). Further, Thracian figures (often tattooed) feature in red figure vase paintings. Therefore, the association between foreignness and slavery was long ingrained in the Greek world. But on top of that, Greek freedom was the natural anti-thesis.

Question 25

aristotles ideological view of natural slavery

Answer 25

A household consists of the dualities of master and slaves, husband and wife, father and child.

· Some believe that the rule of the master is a science; others believe it it contrary to nature

· Aristotle’s view….. ‘there is no difficulty in answering this question….’ ‘there are some that should rule and others be ruled’. This is not only necessary, but expedient. ‘From the hour of their birth, some are marked out for subjection, others for rule’.

· Such dualities exist in the nature of the universe – even in living creatures the ‘soul’ rules the ‘body’. And tame animals are ruled by men (and better off for it).

· ‘he who participates in rational principle enough to apprehend, but not to have, such a principle, is a slave by nature’. – I.e. if you are led by irrationality you are a slave.

· The bodies of slaves is more suited to ‘servile labour’; while the body of freemen is suited to political life in the arts both of war and peace. He argues that slaves are naturally more stooped. He claims this makes them more suitable to tasks where stooping is required (i.e. agriculture or cleaning). By contrast freemen are ‘upright’.

· Two key points: slaves are weaker intellectually and their bodies are more suited

· Therefore – slavery is natural

Question 26

how greeks perceived the differences between women and men , aristotle, enquiry into living creatures

Answer 26

‘[Women are] more mischievous, … more impulsive, more easily moved to tears, … more jealous, more querulous, more apt to scold and to strike … more prone to despondency and less hopeful … more void of shame or self-respect, more false of speech, more deceptive, more shrinking [and] more difficult to rouse to action [than men, but are also] ‘more compassionate, … of more retentive memory [and] … more wakeful, too’.

Question 27

how greeks perceved the differances between men and women, Thucydides

Answer 27

‘their womenfolk, too, joined the fighting audaciously hurling tiles from their roof-tops and withstanding the uproar with a courage beyond their sex’.

Question 28

how barbarian women are dipicted in greek sources

Answer 28

• In the Aeschylus’ Persians, Atossa (daughter of Cyrus, wife of Darius, mother of Xerxes) takes control of the court and acts as a matriarchal figure.
• In Euripides’ Medea, Medea (daughter of the king of Colchis – a barbarian) dramatically takes revenge against her unfaithful husband
• In Herodotus, Artemisia (female ruler of Halicarnassus – half barbarian, half Greek) encourages Xerxes to fight at Salamis (8.68) and plays a leading role in the battle. Xerxes sees her sink a “Greek ship” …actually a Persian ship and runs away…. Leading Xerxes to say “My men have become women, and my women men.” (8.88)