The Mechanics of Emotion - Exam 6 Flashcards
Psychologists define emotion in terms
of what 4 components?
1) Cognition
2) Action
3) “Feelings”
4) Physiological changes
Do emotions encourage or discourage adaptive behaviors?
Encourage
What are built-in reinforcers for adaptive behaviors?
Emotions
Describe the process and outcome of fear
run away; fight; freeze in place (stay alive)
Describe the process and outcome of guilt
apologize; reconciliation (maintain in-group harmony)
Describe the purpose of happiness
reinforcement of prosocial behavior
Describe the purpose and outcome of sadness
reflection; seek support system
Describe the process and outcome of shame
(internal) positive punishment for socially undesirable behavior; (internal) negative reinforcement when socially desirable behavior is used instead and shame subsides
Emotional situations arouse what branches of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and the
parasympathetic
Describe the sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for brief, vigorous action
Describe the parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system alters the body’s activities to save energy and prepare for later events. It’s the “relax” system.
True or false: Most situations evoke the sympathetic nervous system
False; Most situations evoke a combination of sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal.
Describe the James-Lange theory (1884/1885)
bodily reactions drive emotional experiences
What could be predicted based on the earlier James-Lange theory?
That people with a weak autonomic or skeletal response should feel less emotion. This is because this theory postulates that
physical reactions drive the perception of
emotion.
What does research say about physical paralysis and emotion?
Paralyzed people report feeling emotion
to the same degree as prior to their injury
When output from the autonomic NS fails to reach the body, how does this affect emotion? What does this suggest?
People with this condition report feeling the same emotions as they did before, but less intensely.
This suggests that other factors, beyond
physiological arousal, are involved in the
experience of emotion
Describe the Cannon-Bard theory (1920’s)
What about increased heart rate while exercising? Is that experienced as fear? As love? As excitement?
• Per this theory, the brain is the driver of
emotions, and emotions occur at the same time and independently via the thalamus which cues physiological reactions via the autonomic NS.
What the Cannon-Bard theory states is
that perception of the body’s reactions
are important for emotional experiences
• However, the body’s actions are not
necessarily required, it seems
Which theory states that the brain is the driver of emotions, and emotions occur at the same time and independently via the thalamus—which cues physiological reactions via the autonomic NS
Cannon-Bard theory (1920’s)
True or false: Creating certain body actions may also slightly influence emotion
True; Smiling slightly increases happiness and inducing a frown leads to the rating of stimuli as slightly less pleasant
How does making yourself smile or frown affect your emotions?
Smiling slightly increases happiness
and inducing a frown leads to the rating of stimuli as slightly less pleasant
Describe the Schachter-Singer (1960s) theory
The cognitive interpretation of why
arousal is happening leads to different emotions (i.e., two-factor theory)
Describe the Cognitive Appraisal Theories (1980s)
The cognitive interpretation of the stimuli leads to arousal and then emotions
What are 4 of the classical theories of
emotion that are being covered in this
course?
The James-Lange Theory (1884/1885)
The Cannon-Bard Theory (1920s)
The Schachter-Singer theory (1960s)
The Cognitive Appraisal Theories (1980s)
What are the three main aspects of emotion?
Cognition, feeling, and action
True or false: An emotion is usually considered a coherent “whole”
True
Do all aspects of emotion always occur together?
No; all aspects do not always occur together
Do emotional experiences arouse one area of the brain, or many?
Emotional experiences actually arouse
many areas of the brain
What are the 9 functions of the prefrontal cortex?
- Empathy
- Insight
- Response Flexibility
- Emotion Regulation
- Body Regulation
- Morality
- Intuition
- Attuned Communication
- Fear Modulation
What does the limbic brain do?
- Fight, flight, freeze stress response
- Thinks, “Am I safe? Do people want me?”
- Emotions live here
Where do emotions live?
The limbic brain
What is in charge of the bottom-up processing of emotions?
The limbic system
Describe the process of bottom-up processing of emotions
• Cues the initial stimulus response • Take the below image of jutting sharp teeth as an example. • The limbic system may remember that stimuli that look like this are usually dangerous
What is the limbic system?
A cluster of brain structures deep in
the brain associated with emotion
What is in charge of the top-down processing of emotions?
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cingulate cortex (CC)
Describe the top-down processing of emotions
After contextual information is
integrated…how might it affect the
emotional response to the owner of
these “gruesome” teeth? dog?
A rough analogy for the biopsychology of emotion is the pedals in a car. Describe it.
Limbic system = gas
PFC & CC = brakes
True or false: Experts disagree about what
structures belong to the limbic system
True
Experts usually agree that 4 primary structures, deep within the temporal and frontal lobes, are a part of the limbic system. What are they?
Hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus
What does the hippocampus do?
Memory
What does the thalamus do?
Relays input from the senses (e.g., sight; touch)
What does the amygdala do?
Fear responses
What does the hypothalamus do?
Motivational systems (Fight/flight/freeze; regulates many metabolic and hormone processes)
A recent review of brain imaging studies indicated that there is no strong evidence for the _______ of emotions
localization
True or false: There is a single emotion spot in the brain
False; there is no single spot responsible for emotion
What does the lack of evidence for the localization of emotions imply?
In other words, it appears that no specific brain area is critical for emotion (in general) without contributing to other behavioral aspects There is no single “emotion spot” in the brain
Are emotions true category?
- Emotions are a category in the same sense that weeds are a category
- There is actually nothing in nature that distinguishes weeds from flowers
- These separate concepts were created by humans in an attempt to serve a certain purpose
Who argues that emotion is a concept
created by humans to serve us? Why?
Feldman; The lack of evidence for any consistent biological link between our subjective emotional feelings and our physiological responses suggests that emotion may not be a coherent category.
What supports the idea that emotions aren’t a true category?
In fact, in studies that measure both participant physiological responses (e.g., heart rate) and severity of self-report symptom questionnaires (e.g., anxiety),
the correlation between the two is typically
underwhelming
What is the main support for the idea of basic emotions?
Facial expressions exist for happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, and perhaps other emotions, and the ability to recognize these expressions are found across cultures
• Although there are limitations to the classic studies……perhaps the ID task was too easy?
Remember, no emotion has a “location” in the brain; rather, each of these basic emotions are impacted by multiple areas of the brain
True or false: We interpret emotion based solely on facial expressions
False; We rarely interpret emotion based solely on facial expressions
How many emotions can be present in a single facial expression?
Two or more
When are humans best at identifying emotion from others?
When they’re a part of the same race or culture
Besides facial expression, what else is important in identifying emotion?
Context and gestures
What’s an alternative view on emotion?
That emotional feelings vary along various continuous dimensions
• Example: weak to strong, pleasant to unpleasant, approach versus avoidance
For example: Plutchik’s three-dimensional emotional model
What models use a more dimensional approach to emotion?
Behavioral activation versus behavioral inhibition models use a more dimensional approach
What is the behavioral activation system characterized by?
• Activation of the frontal and temporal lobes of the left hemisphere.
• Marked by low to moderate physiological arousal
• Behavioral tendency is to approach
something
• Can characterize happiness or anger, for example
What is the behavioral inhibition system associated with?
• Associated with activation of the frontal
and temporal lobes of the right hemisphere
• Increases attention and arousal
• Inhibits action
• Stimulates emotions such as fear, disgust, and indecisiveness
What words describe the BAS? BIS?
Behavioral activation system (BAS): Curious, eager, motivated, proactive
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS): Cautious, indecisive, fearful, anxious
Where is much of the limbic system located?
The medial portion of the temporal lobe
What is one of the dominant roles of the left hemisphere?
Language
Which hemisphere is more engaged when responding to emotional situations?
The right hemisphere has been found to be more (but not exclusively) engaged than the left hemisphere when responding to emotional situations
True or false: emotion has adaptive value, helps us communicate needs to others, and aids in quick decision making
True
Give an example of the adaptive value of emotion
Examples: fear leads to escape, and anger leads to attack
Imagine a world in which we never felt guilty! Or anxious! Or embarrassed! We’d be a bunch of lazy psychopaths doing dangerous things.
Give an example of the communicative value of emotion
- Helps us communicate our social needs and understand others’ social needs
- Have you ever seen a friend silently demonstrate sadness with their body language and you ask “Are you okay?
Give an example of how emotion aids in quick/ gut decision making
If a tidal wave is hurtling toward you, you don’t have time to stand there and think, “hmmm….let’s assess this situation.”
We pay much attention to how the outcomes of our decisions will ____ __ ____
make us feel
What parts of the brain are involved in contemplating moral decisions?
Contemplating moral decisions activates the prefrontal cortex (including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) and cingulate gyrus (see image; anterior CG is in green; important in emotion processing and behavior regulation)
What is the anterior cingulate gyrus important for?
Contemplating moral decisions, but also emotion processing and behavioral regulation
Who is least likely to make the decision to kill one person to save 5 others?
People with strongest autonomic arousal (i.e., of the autonomic nervous system) are least likely to make the decision to kill one person in order to save five others
True or false: Moral decisions are usually made 100% rationally
False; moral decisions are seldom made 100% rationally.
One decision or the other just “feels” right
We typically rationalize after the decision has been made
Damage to the ______ _____ blunts or unhinges emotions
prefrontal cortex
What does damage to the prefrontal cortex do?
• Damage to parts of prefrontal cortex blunts or unhinges emotions
• Impairs decision-making
•Leads to impulsive decision-making without pausing to consider consequences
• Remember the “gas” and “brakes” analogy from Part I of this module? What happens if you are driving down
the highway and the brakes go out?
Those with ventromedial prefrontal cortex (has a large role in emotional reasoning) show:
Inconsistent preferences for things
Decreased reports of guilt and trust
Attack and escape behaviors correspond to what emotions?
Anger and fear
Describe how attack and escape behaviors and their corresponding emotions are related
Attack and escape behaviors and
corresponding emotions (anger and fear)
are closely related—physiologically (e.g.,
heart rate) and behaviorally
True or false: Scientists study fear and aggression more than happy and peaceful behavior
True
Describe the complexity of aggression
Aggression is complex.
Is usually adaptive (e.g., defense against a predator)
Can also be maladaptive (e.g., road rage)
True or false: Aggression is usually adaptive
True;
Is usually adaptive (e.g., defense against a predator)
Can also be maladaptive (e.g., road rage)
What are the two main types of maladaptive aggression?
Reactive-impulsive aggression and proactive (controlled) instrumental aggression
Describe reactive-impulsive aggression
– highly emotional; report
feeling “out of control”
– Limbic system-driven
What type of aggression is limbic system driven and what type is higher cortices-driven?
Reactive-impulsive is limbic system driven; proactive-instrumental aggression is higher cortices driven
Describe proactive (controlled)-instrumental aggression
– Purposeful; calculated – Associated with antisocial and callous-unemotional behavior – Higher cortices-driven
What type of aggression is associated with antisocial and callous-unemotional behavior?
proactive (controlled)-instrumental aggression
Name 2 limbic brain structures that are
implicated in aggression
- Amygdala
2. Hypothalamus
Describe the role of the amygdala in aggression
• Amygdala
– Initiates emotional responses that may lead to aggression
– Lesions appear to have different effects, depending on the situation
• Increase aggression in group of threatening males (monkeys)
• Decrease aggression in group during a less threatening social situation (monkey)
– In humans, increased amygdala activation has been found to occur for
patients with intermittent explosive disorder when shown angry faces
– Patients with tumors in the amygdala at higher risk for aggression
Describe the role of the hypothalamus in aggression
- Hypothalamus is stimulated by the amygdala for “fight/flight/freeze” response
- Hypothalamus (in rats):
- Lesions (damage) to specific parts of the hypothalamus have resulted in reduced aggression between males
What is the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) involved in?
Decision-making and motivation
Describe the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in aggression
involved in decision-making and motivation
What is damage to the orbitofrontal cortex associated with?
Damage to the OFC is associated with
increased aggressive behaviors (i.e., less
oversight over impulses)
True or false: Individual differences in aggressive, violent, or antisocial behavior depend on both environment and heredity
True
Give examples of the environmental impact on aggressive behavior tendencies
• Environmental examples that may impact
aggressive behavior tendencies:
Witness or victim of violence in childhood
Living in a violent neighborhood
Abused children are more likely to express violent behavior
Exposure to lead harms developing brains
Describe the role of heredity in violence
• Heredity
Twin studies indicate significant amount of
heritability of aggression tendencies, although
there is some debate about the validity of
experimental designs of past research
MAOA gene—low activity form shows a link to
aggression
• But there still seems to be a high
interaction between genetics and the
environment in which a person was raised
Also, these are risk factors that vary in severity. They
are not 100% absolute causal factors
Describe the results of twin studies on aggression
Twin studies indicate significant amount of
heritability of aggression tendencies, although there is some debate about the validity of experimental designs of past research
What does the MAOa gene have to do with aggression?
Low activity form shows a link to aggression
Describe the example of Genes, Environment, and Antisocial Behavior in Men given in the powerpoint
As you can see with
this interaction effect:
• Altogether, antisocial behavior (Y) is positively related to maltreatment severity (X)
• This is especially true for men with
low MAOA activity
• Thus, the combination of more severe maltreatment and low MAOa activity was associated with higher antisocial behavior
True or false: There is much more research on aggression and testosterone
conducted in men, vs women.
True
Where is testosterone produced?
Testosterone is produced by the testes and, to a smaller extent, in the adrenal glands and ovaries
Describe the role of testosterone in male aggression
• Male aggressive behavior and striving for dominance is heavily
related to testosterone
Young men have highest rates of aggressive behaviors and violent
crimes, as well as higher testosterone levels than older men
There is some question as to whether these individual differences are based on baseline testosterone levels at rest, or degree of fluctuations in testosterone levels when reacting to certain situations. (May be the latter—suggestive of difficulties with regulating emotions.)
• On average, men engage in more aggressive and violent behaviors than women
Likely a hormoneXsocial-learning interaction
Describe the role of testosterone in female aggression
• Increasing testosterone in women
Increased the amount of time looking at angry faces
Results in more arguing during collaborative tasks
Violent male offenders had ____more/less___ testosterone than non-violent offenders
more
_____ serotonin release is generally
related to lower aggression and
impulsivity in rodents, and vice versa
Higher
Describe the role of serotonin turnover in aggression
•Serotonin turnover
The amount of serotonin that neurons
release and replace
Degree of serotonin turnover negatively
related to violent behavior
• Measured by the concentration of 5-HIAA (a
metabolite that breaks down serotonin) in the
cerebrospinal fluid
• Higher 5-HIAA = lower turnover violence
Describe Luigi Valzelli’s experiment involving serotonin turnover and aggression
• Experimental results in several
genetic strains of mice
• Luigi Valzelli found that social isolation
induced a drop in serotonin turnover in the brains of male mice, an effect that further increased the possibility of aggressive behavior toward other males. These effects are not found in female mice.
Low serotonin turnover is found in people with a history of:
violent behavior, such as arson and suicide by violent means
The relationship between serotonin and aggression is _____
weak
Those with depression with higher amounts of 5-HIAA were __more/less__ likely to have attempted suicide
Less
What is the consensus on the neurochemistry of aggression?
According to a growing consensus,
aggressive behavior does not correlate
strongly with any one chemical because it
depends on a combination and ratios
Testosterone, facilitates aggressive, assertive, dominant behavior
Serotonin tends to inhibit impulsive behaviors
Cortisol (prolonged stress hormone) inhibits aggression
Other neurochemicals, such as neurotransmitters GABA, noradrenaline, and dopamine, also play roles in aggression, but we won’t go into detail about those for this class
Cortisol _inhibits/facilitates__ aggression
Inhibits
Is fear focused on the past, present, or future?
Present
When do you experience fear?
You experience fear when there is an active threat to your safety and/or wellbeing
Fear typically involves the ____ and is immediate
• It dumps fast-acting hormones into your body to deal with that immediate, active threat
HPA-axis
Is anxiety focused on the past, present, or future?
Future
When do you experience anxiety?
You experience anxiety when there is potential or looming threat to your safety and/or wellbeing
True or false: Anxiety also involves the HPA-axis and the effects can be immediate and possibly chronic
True
Give examples of anxiety thoughts and worrying
- “I am camping next weekend; what if there are bears?! ”
- “I’m totally going to fail this test tomorrow!”
- Worrying is related; it is a type of mental behavior that we sometimes do when feeling anxious (e.g., imagining every possible bear attack scenario)
What are the 7 areas involved in fear and anxiety?
- Amygdala
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Hippocampus
- Bed nucleus portion of the stria terminalis
- Prefrontal cortex
- (Anterior) cingulate cortex
What manages the startle reflex
The amygdala
What is the role of the amygdala?
Manage startle reflex
Describe the startle reflex
• Startle reflex
An extremely fast response to unexpected incidents, especially loud noises
• Behavioral examples include ducking, blinking, being “jumpy”, yelping, etc.
This is a necessary reflex for survival.
However, it is found to be much more sensitive in people suffering from some emotional disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
When does the startle reflex occur?
Occurs within 2/10 of a second between auditory information and startle reaction
When is the startle reflex more vigorous? Give examples
• Startle reflex is more vigorous if you’re already tense
E.g., If you are walking though a “haunted house” in anxious anticipation, your startle reflex is more primed, versus if you are walking through the hallway of a well-known comfortable environment
Whenever I go to the optometrist and have to get the air puff test in my eye, I can’t stop blinking! It is because I am tensing up in expectation of an uncomfortable sensation.
What can be used to objectively measure fear/anxiety?
Startle reflex
Give an example of the startle reflex being used to measure fear. anxiety
Can be used with animal and human subjects to explore brain mechanisms and psychophysiology
In this picture: assessing the blink startle reflex (i.e., eye muscle contractions) with sensors. For example, the intensity of the muscle contraction is measured after a series of sudden static noise bursts—all while anticipating a negative stimulus. The startle reflex is typically stronger when we are expecting, but not 100% certain about the timing of, something negative…..like those freaking air puff things at the optometrist
How do the amygdala and the startle reflex work together?
The amygdala enhances the startle reflex via axons to the hypothalamus (which partially controls the autonomic NS fear responses). The amygdala also relays information to the midbrain, which in turn sends axons to the pons on the hindbrain, triggering the startle reflex.
The amygdala enhances the startle reflex via axons to the _____ (which partially controls the autonomic NS fear
responses).
hypothalamus
The amygdala is important for learning what? Give an example
• The amygdala is also important for learning emotionally charged memories and habits (note how close it is to the hippocampus!)
E.g., greater blood flow in the amygdala correlates with better short-and long-term memory recall (Hamann et al., 1999).
Although to be fair, this doesn’t mean that we’re always remembering
100% of what actually happened during emotional events or times of
crisis (e.g., the pros and cons of witness testimony)
The ____ is thus important for knowing what to fear. For example, when we learn through scary experiences, we become more fearful of a wider variety of situations related to that experience.
amygdala
When we learn through scary experiences, we become more fearful of a wider variety of situations related to that experience. This long-term, generalization of fear depends
on a brain area called the ____ _____ ____ ___ ___ ______, which is also part of the limbic system.
bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)
Describe the role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) in fear
When we learn through scary experiences, we become more fearful of a wider variety of situations related to that experience. This long-term, generalization of fear depends
on a brain area called the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), which is also part of the limbic system.
What connects the amygdala and the hypothalamus in the limbic system?
The striata terminalis
If a rat receives shocks during classical fear conditioning, it may learn to fear what?
The stimulus (shock), as well as the cage, similar cages, and new situations that are superficially related to the conditioned stimulus. The same is true for humans.
Let’s say someone is traumatically bitten by a certain breed of dog. The fear-focused amygdala enhances fear memories via the ______. The BNST enables generalization of the startle reflex to related dog stimuli in the future (e.g., that specific breed).
hippocampus
Fear generalization is ______, because it
enables your “gut” response to potential threat
adaptive
However, scientists typically observe
_________ of fear response to superficially related stimuli in anxiety disorders (e.g., pictures of dogs in dog phobia) and PTSD (e.g., July 4 fireworks for war combat-related PTSD)
overgeneralization
Cells in the amygdala get input from pain fibers and different pathways for different sensory inputs. The _______ ____, for example, is directly tied into the
limbic system, whereas the other senses usually have another step or 2 before reaching the limbic system.
olfactory bulb
Different paths through the amygdala are responsible for what?
Fear of pain, fear of predators, and fear of aggressive members of the same species!
One part of the amygdala controls breathing changes (needed for fight/flight). Another helps identify _____ _____
safe places
What parts of the amygdala have specialized roles?
The left and right sides of the amygdala
fMRI studies show the amygdala responds strongly to what?
Photos that arouse fear or photos of faces showing fear. Response is stronger when the meaning is unclear and requires some processing
What tends to be tied to greatest anxiety?
Uncertainty about threat
The amygdala responds more strongly to an angry face directed elsewhere and to a frightened face directed toward the viewer. Why?
Both are a bit harder to interpret
______ damage even affects the ability to recognize facial expressions of fear or
disgust
Or, when the emotions are accurately labeled, they are rated as less intense than other people would rate the stimuli
Amygdala
Damage or disease to the ____ can be associated with lack of fear response, even in dangerous situations.
amygdala
True or false: amygdala damage does not result in the full loss of emotion in humans
True
What happens if the amygdala is damaged?
• Effects of damage:
Individuals can classify emotional pictures without difficulty
Individuals experience little emotional/physical arousal from viewing unpleasant photos
Describe Urbach-Wiethe Disease
A rare genetic condition that causes calcium to accumulate in the amygdala until it wastes away
Describe the SM case study
• Case study of person called SM
Experienced fearlessness
• May sound pretty awesome at first, but it put SM at a disadvantage for staying safe.
SM correctly drew faces with various emotions but had trouble drawing a fearful face
• See next slide for drawings
Did not generally look at people’s eyes
Describe how the Toxoplasma
gondii hijacks the brains of cats
• A protozoan that infects many mammals but reproduces only in cats
• Cats excrete the parasite’s eggs Can infect burrowing rats that come into contact with the parasite eggs
• Affects fear memory through dysfunction of the frontal cortex and amygdala
• Rat then approaches cat without fear and gets eaten Parasite finds its way back into the cat
The rather horrifying cycle repeats itself
Proneness to fear and anxiety, as well as the most appropriate response, varies with what?
The given situation and the individual (genetics x history)
True or false: People’s tendency toward anxiety remains fairly consistent over time
True
People with genes for reduced serotonin reuptake into the presynaptic neuron have what?
Increased responses to threat
Soldiers with initial high levels of amygdalar response showed ____more/less____ combat stress later on
more
Describe when the PFC and CC are typically activated
When applying context to deciding whether something is safe or dangerous and when deciding to confront a fear, avoid it, or ignore it
Give an example of the PFC and CC applying context to deciding whether something is safe or dangerous
E.g., using the prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex for reappraisal as a coping mechanism
• Anxious thought: “I know I’m going to fail my exam tomorrow!”
• Reappraisal: “Well, I did study for a while. I also passed the last exam, and I met with Dr. Howell about how I can improve for next time. Chances are that I’ll improve.”
Anxiety disorders are characterized as such when:
The major symptom is anxiety that causes significant distress and/or impairment for a prolonged amount of time (generally 6+ months)
Anxiety itself is needed in our lives to keep us motivated and alert. Anxiety disorders involve _____ in the biopsychology of fear and anxiety.
dysregulation
Define panic disorder
Constant fear of having out-of-the-blue panic attacks (which are happening at least weekly), such that one goes as far as to change their daily lives to avoid panic
attacks
Define specific phobias
Intense and life-interfering anxiety and avoidance of a specific object, animal, insect, situation, etc.
Define generalized anxiety disorder
Persistent, uncontrollable worry about numerous topics, along with symptoms such as tension, sleep problems, fatigue, irritability, and restlessness
Define social anxiety disorder
Persistent and excessive anxiety about being evaluated by other people—oftentimes avoiding various social situations
Describe panic disorder in detail
Frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of symptoms such as rapid breathing, increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling
All anxiety disorders are more common in women than men, and have a greater tendency to start in adolescence and young adulthood
Possible genetic component, given heritability
Linked to hypothalamus abnormalities
Decreased GABA
How is trauma defined for a PTSD diagnosis?
- Direct exposure to or directly witnessing: death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence
- Learning about a loved one’s exposure to or dying by serious accident or violence
- Frequent long-term exposure to distressing details of traumatic events (e.g., some professions involve daily exposure to such content)
PTSD is characterized by what 4 symptoms?
- Distressing re-experiencing of the trauma (e.g., nightmares; flashbacks; intrusive memories)
- Negative changes in thinking and mood
- Hyper-startle reactivity
- Frequent avoidance of (safe) reminders of the trauma
How long must symptoms last for it to be considered PTSD?
Symptoms must be going on for 1 month or more following the trauma to be considered for PTSD
• PTSD can be considered as one being “stuck” in the recovery process. Many people experience normal traumatic stress symptoms such as above, soon after the trauma, as the brain tries to process, adjust, and confirm that one has reached safety
True or false: all people who go through trauma develop PTSD
False
How rare is going through trauma?
Going through trauma is not rare. About 6 of every 10 men (or 60%) and 5 of every 10 women (or 50%) experience at least one trauma in their lives. Women are more likely to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse. Men are more likely to experience accidents, physical assault, combat, disaster, or to witness death or injury.
Close to ___% of Americans 13 years of age and older develop PTSD during their lifetime (Kes
6%
What are some biopsychological vulnerabilities to PTSD?
• For example, persons with chronic PTSD may have a
smaller than average hippocampus and have lower than
normal cortisol levels
• Huh? Lower than normal stress cortisol levels?
• It could be that the nervous system starts to over-regulate if it
is being bombarded with chronically high levels of cortisol (which could cause downstream harm to the body)
What are the 3 common neurochemical approaches to managing anxiety?
Antianxiety drugs
Antidepressants
Alcohol misuse
Describe benzodiazepines
• Benzodiazepines are sometimes called “anti-anxiety” drugs
These drugs are fast-acting
Typically prescribed “as needed” for short-term use, with little
evidence of improving chronic anxiety symptoms in the long-term
Have the potential for addiction with increased tolerance, as well as
to reinforce avoidance rituals
The molecules also affect aquatic animals after being peed out and
flushed; they hardly break down in water treatment plants
Although, fewer long-term side effects than antidepressants (covered
next)
Prescribers should conduct thorough assessments and carefully
consider who may (or may not) benefit from benzodiazepines
How do benzodiazepines work?
Bind to the GABAA receptor, and facilitate the inhibitory effects of GABA
So, if it increases the effects of neurotransmitter that inhibits subsequent
neurons
Exert their effects in the amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain,
and other areas
Most antidepressants act as ____ by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters
that are implicated in mood and anxiety
agonists
What are the 3 major classes of antidepressants that are used to treat anxiety disorders?
SSRIs, SNRIs, and tricyclic antidepressants
Describe SSRIs
Agonist. Block the reabsorption of serotonin, thereby leaving more
serotonin to hang out in the synapse and affect postsynaptic neurons
• Examples of SSRIs include: fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft)
Describe SNRIs
Agonist. SNRIs are notable for a dual mechanism of action: increasing the
levels of serotonin and norepinephrine by inhibiting their reuptake
Describe tricyclic antidepressants
• These are a bit old school and tend to have more side effects, but may
work best for some patients (e.g., imipramine [Tofranil])
• Also block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, but they have less
specificity than SNRIs and can therefore have unwanted effects on
neighboring receptors (thereby side-effects)
• I drink to.... Calm my nerves Take the edge off Melt away the stress of the day Build liquid courage These are common phrases for what is otherwise known as \_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ for alcohol use (AKA “self- medicating”)
coping motives
Describe the relationship between alcohol and anxiety
Alcohol use problems and anxiety are both much more strongly correlated with coping motives for drinking than
they are with the amount of alcohol consumed. (e.g., Howell et al., 2010)
Thus, drinking primarily to cope with emotions can be a red flag for possible anxiety or alcohol use problems in the present or future
• Replacing alcohol use with more healthy coping mechanisms (e.g., exercise; social support; creative outlets; etc.) is ideal
• Alcohol’s effects on GABA receptors are responsible for the brief anti-anxiety effects people feel
Does antidepressant treatment have a “bottom up” or “top down” approach?
bottom up; starts at the neurochemical level and “works its way up” to observable
changes in cognition and behavior
Describe practices that have top down antianxiety effects
E.g., repeatedly practicing new ways of thinking and behaving, which eventually alters neural pathways associated with anxiety
Describe cognitive techniques to aid anxiety
Reappraisal (remember this one from earlier in the module?)
Retraining how one allocates their attention to stimuli in the environment
These typically engage prefrontal cortical areas a lot at first (remember
the “brakes”?), which over time become less needed as automated
habits take over (recall from the Movement module?)
Reappraisal is an example of what?
cognitive techniques
Describe behavioral skills to cope with anxiety
Safely facing overgeneralized anxieties/fears (thereby altering the
fear/memory/startle network with new memories in the limbic system)
Healthy coping practices that are shown to impact neurotransmitters
important for mood and anxiety, such as dopamine and serotonin
• E.g., exercise, meditation, achievement-oriented challenges, creativity, etc.
