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Biological Psychology > Movement - Exam 4 > Flashcards

Movement - Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Ultimately, the brain is linked to the concept of ______

A

Movement

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2
Q

Internal processing would be useless without the ability to do what?

A

Move

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3
Q

All animal movement depends on what?

A

Muscle contractions

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4
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle?

A

Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac

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5
Q

What does smooth muscle do?

A

Control the digestive system and other organs

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6
Q

What does skeletal muscle do?

A

Skeletal muscle (striated muscle) controls movement of the body in relation to the environment

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7
Q

What does cardiac muscle do?

A

Heart muscles that have the properties of skeletal and smooth muscles, they keep the heart beating

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8
Q

What do smooth muscle cells look like?

A

They’re long thin cells; found in the intestines and other organs

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9
Q

What is another name for skeletal muscle?

A

Striated muscle

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10
Q

What do skeletal muscle cells look like?

A

Long and cylindrical fibers with stripes; control body movement

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11
Q

What do cardiac muscle cells look like?

A

Fibers that fuse together at various points to contract together rather than independently; found in the heart

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12
Q

What are muscle fibers composed of?

A

Muscle fibers are composed of many individual fibers

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13
Q

Each muscle fiber receives information from how many axons?

A

One axon

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14
Q

How many muscle fibers may a single axon innervate?

A

Many muscle fibers

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15
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction?

A

A special kind of synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber

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16
Q

What type of synapse is between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber?

A

A neuromuscular junction

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17
Q

What causes the muscle to move/ contract?

A

The release of acetylcholine

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18
Q

How can movements be more precise?

A

Movements can be more precise where each axon innervates only a few fibers (like in eye muscles) than where it innervates many fibers (like in biceps muscles).

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19
Q

How are fine motor movements created?

A

By one axon innervating only a few muscle fibers

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20
Q

Messages from a motor neuron to specific muscle fibers (via acetylcholine) can only do what?

A

Tell the muscle to contract

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21
Q

How do motor neurons communicate with specific muscle fibers?

A

Acetylcholine

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22
Q

Define antagonistic muscles

A

Opposing sets of muscles

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23
Q

Movement requires what?

A

The alternating contraction of opposing sets of muscles called antagonistic muscles

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24
Q

What are the two categories of muscles [based on the way they move]?

A

Flexor and extensor muscles

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25
Q

Define flexor muscle

A

A muscle that flexes or raises an appendage (like the bicep)

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26
Q

Define extensor muscle

A

A muscle that extends an appendage, or straightens it (like the triceps)

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27
Q

What are the two types of skeletal muscle fibers?

A

Fast-twitch fibers and slow-twitch fibers

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28
Q

Describe slow-twitch fibers

A

Skeletal muscle fibers that produce slower contractions with slower fatigue (i.e. tongue muscle fibers used for talking)

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29
Q

Describe fast-twitch fibers

A

Skeletal muscle fibers that produce fast contractions but fatigue rapidly (i.e. muscles for sprinting or climbing)

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30
Q

What factors influence the percentages of fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscles?

A

Genetics and degree of muscle training

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31
Q

Describe how the type of training impacts the ratio of fast and slow twitch fibers

A

Olympic sprinters will have significantly more fast-twitch fibers in their legs than most of us, whereas olympic marathon runners will have significantly more slow-twitch fibers in their legs

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32
Q

Are slow-twitch fibers aerobic or anaerobic?

A

Slow-twitch fibers are aerobic and require oxygen during movement and therefore do not fatigue.

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33
Q

Nonstrenuous activities utilize what fibers?

A

Slow-twitch and intermediate fibers

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34
Q

Are fast-twitch fibers aerobic or anaerobic?

A

Fast twitch fibers are anaerobic and use reactions that don’t require oxygen, but need “gulps” (so to speak) of oxygen to recover - resulting in muscle fatigue

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35
Q

Behaviors requiring quick movements utilize what fibers?

A

Fast-twitch

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36
Q

Why does anemia cause weakness?

A

Oxygen needs to bind to iron (to make hemoglobin, which is in red blood cells) in order to be transported to muscles. Low iron means fewer vehicles to transport the oxygen

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37
Q

Define proprioceptors

A

Receptors that detect the position or movement of a part of the body

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38
Q

What do proprioceptors do?

A

They help us know where we are in relation to the space around us

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39
Q

What do muscle proprioceptors do and how?

A

They help us orient our movements as we interact with our environment. They do this by sending afferent sensory messages to the spinal cord, which then adjust movements by sending back efferent motor messages

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40
Q

What is a muscle spindle?

A

One type of proprioceptor, they run parallel to muscles and respond to the stretching or tensing of the muscle [imagine your ankle starting to twist as you step off the curb]

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41
Q

Name two type of proprioceptor

A

Muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs

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42
Q

When does a stretch reflex occur?

A

When muscle proprioceptors detect the stretch and tension of a muscle and send messages through afferent sensory neurons to the spinal cord, which then sends messages to contract the muscle with efferent motor neurons (can be used to balance your ankle)

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43
Q

A stretch reflex reacts to what?

A

A stretch reflex reacts to stretching/tension of the muscle by counteracting it; it doesn’t cause the muscle to stretch

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44
Q

True or false: A stretch reflex causes your muscle to stretch

A

False

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45
Q

What are the two things involved in a stretch reflex?

A

The golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles

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46
Q

What is the golgi ttendon organ?

A

Another type of proprioceptor that responds to an increase in muscle tension

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47
Q

Where is the golgi tendon organ located?

A

The tendons at the opposite ends of the muscle

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48
Q

What does the golgi tendon organ do?

A

It acts as a “brake” against excessively vigorous contraction during the stretch reflex, which could result in injury or over-correcting. It does this by sending an impulse to the spinal cord, where motor neurons are then inhibited by interneurons

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49
Q

What would happen if the stretch reflex happened without the golgi tendon organ?

A

Injury or over-correction, since the golgi tendon organ acts as a brake against excessively vigorous contraction

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50
Q

Explain the regulation of muscle contractions

A

When a muscle is stretched, nerves from the muscle spindles transmit impulses that lead to contraction of the muscle. Contraction of the muscle stimulates the Golgi tendon organ, which acts as a brake or shock absorber to prevent a contraction that is too quick or extreme.

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51
Q

What regulates muscle contractions?

A

Two kinds of proprioceptors: muscle spindles and the golgi tendon organ

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52
Q

When you get your knee tapped at the doctor’s office, what happens?

A

A stretch reflex. The tap stretches the extensor muscles and their spindles, resulting in a message that jerks the lower leg upward. A leg that jerks excessively or not at all may indicate a neurological problem

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53
Q

Define reflex

A

An involuntary, consistent, and automatic response to stimuli

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54
Q

Most movements are a combination of what two things?

A

A combination of voluntary and involuntary; reflexive and nonreflexive

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55
Q

Movements vary with respect to what?

A

Feedback

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56
Q

Define ballistic

A

A movement that cannot be changed once initiated (ex: reaching/pointing or striking/punching/throwing)

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57
Q

What are the two categories of feedback?

A

Ballistic and guided by feedback

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58
Q

Many behaviors consist of ____ sequences of _____ movements

A

Many behaviors consist of rapid sequences of individual movements

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59
Q

Define central pattern generators

A

Neural systems in the spinal cord or elsewhere that generate rhythmic patterns of motor output and are determined by the animal’s genes

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60
Q

Give examples of central pattern generators in animals

A

Wing flapping in birds or “wet dog shake”

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61
Q

Give examples of central pattern generators in humans

A

Chewing movements; walking; standing; urinating

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62
Q

Define motor program

A

A motor program is a fixed sequence of movements that is either learned and “programmed” into memory or built into the nervous system (via central pattern generator)

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63
Q

True or false: Motor programs are ballistic

A

True

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64
Q

Describe how automatic a motor program is

A

It’s automatic in the sense that thinking or talking about it interferes with the action

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65
Q

What doesn’t need afferent input from the environment to happen?

A

Motor programs; in fact, animal research and human case studies have found that some motor programs persist, even after blocking incoming sensory information (e.g., lesions; paralysis, mouse grooming itself, yawning).

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66
Q

True or false: Reflexes occur completely independently of the brain

A

False; while there are many movements that do not depend on the brain to occur (such as reflexes), these actions still “check in” with the brain, which then may tweak our movements to best fit environmental conditions.

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67
Q

True or false: Controlling movements only depends on the cerebral cortex

A

False; controlling movement depends on many areas of the brain

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68
Q

Give an example of an intentional movement

A

Scrolling to the next slide

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69
Q

Give an example of a learned habit that can seem automatic over time

A

Driving

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70
Q

Why is it important to understand how the brain controls movement? (give 3 out of the many reasons)

A
  1. It’s super fascinating.
  2. Offers insights and hopes for giving back movement after spinal cord damage or limb amputations
  3. Reveals the causes of movement disorders. Understanding causes is necessary as scientists try to find the best ways to treat, and possibly prevent, these disorders
71
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A

The frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes

72
Q

What does the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex do?

A

It processes visual input

73
Q

What does the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex do?

A

It processes auditory information and helps form memories (thanks to the hippocampus)

74
Q

What does the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex do?

A

It processes touch sensations

75
Q

What does the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex do?

A

It controls fine motor movements, reasoning, higher level cognition, and expressive language

76
Q

Describe the location of the primary motor cortex

A

The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus, which is a part of the frontal lobe, which is 1 of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex.

77
Q

What generates impulses that control the muscles from head to toe?

A

Axons from the motor cortex connect to the brainstem and the spinal cord, which then generate the impulses that control the muscles from head to doe

78
Q

What is involved in complex movements? Give an example

A

The cerebral cortex is additionally involved in complex movements, like playing tennis

79
Q

What send out messages?

A

Pathways from the primary motor cortex, other cortical areas, midbrain, and medulla

80
Q

Where do messages from the primary motor cortex go?

A

Usually to interneurons in the spinal cord that bridge these messages to the efferent motor neurons

81
Q

Describe the pathway of messages to control muscles

A

Pathways from the primary motor cortex, other cortical areas, midbrain, and medulla send out messages—usually to interneurons in the spinal cord that bridge these messages to the efferent motor neurons. These motor neurons in the medulla and spinal cord are what directly synapse to muscles and control muscle contractions.

82
Q

What directly synapse to muscles and control muscle contractions?

A

Motor neurons in the medulla and spinal cord

83
Q

When is the primary motor cortex active?

A

When people intend to make a movement

84
Q

What orders an outcome?

A

The primary motor cortex

85
Q

True or false: the primary motor cortex not only orders movement, but its neural activity increases even when you are just thinking about moving

A

True

86
Q

Describe contralateral control

A

Specific parts along the primary motor cortex (which is on both the left and right hemispheres) are responsible for controlling the muscles in specific body areas on the opposite side of the body (i.e., contralateral control). Left hemisphere PMC controls muscles on right side of body. Right hemisphere PMC
controls muscles on left side of body. Although, some overlap does exist

87
Q

Larger amounts of surface area on the motor cortex are taken up by what areas of the body?

A

Areas of the body that have more fine and detailed motor movements (e.g., face and hands)

88
Q

Describe the location of the motor cortex

A

The motor cortex lies just anterior to the somatosensory cortex (i.e., sense of touch).

89
Q

The somatosensory area responsible for what part of movement?

A

Feeling/sensing that body part lines up with the motor area responsible for moving that body part.

90
Q

Movement requires communication between what two areas of the brain?

A

The motor cortex and somatosensory cortex

91
Q

True or false: Other areas near the primary motor cortex also contribute to movement

A

True

92
Q

What does the posterior parietal cortex do?

A

It keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world. Damage to this area causes difficulty in coordinating visual stimuli with movement. Example: trouble finding objects in a room, even after describing their appearance. Important for planning what movements are needed

93
Q

If you have trouble finding objects in a room, even after describing their appearance, you may have damage to what area of the brain?

A

The posterior parietal cortex

94
Q

What dose the premotor cortex do and when is it active?

A

It’s active during preparation for movement. It receives information about a target and integrates information about position and posture of the body; organizes the direction of the movement in space

95
Q

What does the supplementary motor cortex do and when is it active?

A

Organizes rapid sequence of movements in a specific order; inhibits old habits if necessary. Active seconds before the movement and active following an error in movement so you can inhibit the incorrect movement the next time

96
Q

What does the prefrontal cortex do and when is it active?

A

Active during a delay before movement. Stores sensory information relative to a movement. Necessary for you to consider the probable outcomes of a movement

97
Q

Define antisaccade task

A

Inhibits a saccade, which is a voluntary eye movement from one target to another

98
Q

Describe what affects your ability to perform an antisaccade task.

A

Performing this task well requires sustained activity in parts of the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia before seeing the moving stimulus. Ability to perform this task matures through adolescence. Performance on this task is impacted by neurological or psychiatric disorders associated with the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia

99
Q

Performing this task well requires sustained activity in parts of the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia before seeing the moving stimulus. Ability to perform this task matures through adolescence. Performance on this task is impacted by neurological or psychiatric disorders associated with the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. What task am I describing?

A

Antisaccade task

100
Q

Name one developing area of research

A

Mirror neurons

101
Q

What are mirror neurons and what do they do?

A

Neurons that are active during both preparation of a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or similar movement.
May be important for understanding, identifying, and imitating other people. May be involved in social behaviors. Unknown whether they cause or result from social behavior. Possible implications in autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia

102
Q

Messages from the brain must reach the _____ and spinal cord to control the muscles using the ______ _________

A

Messages from the brain must reach the medulla and spinal cord to control the muscles using the corticospinal tracts

103
Q

Define corticospinal tracts

A

Paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

104
Q

True or false: different tracts contribute to all movements, but they also have specializations

A

True

105
Q

What are two of the types of corticospinal tract?

A

The lateral corticospinal tract and the medial corticospinal tract

106
Q

Describe the lateral corticospinal tract

A

A set of very long neuron axons projecting from the primary motor cortex, surrounding brain areas, and brain stem to the spinal cord. They travel on the lateral sides of the spinal cord (hence the name). Controls movement on the lateral (peripheral) areas of the body (e.g., hands and feet). Axons extend from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the spinal cord, and control opposite side of the body (i.e., contralateral control)

107
Q

Describe the medial corticospinal tract

A

A set of axons from many parts of the cortex (not just the ones you’ve already learned about in the cerebral cortex). E.g., Reticular formation, midbrain tectum, and vestibular nucleus. Axons of the medial tract go to both sides of the spinal cord, not just to the contralateral side. The medial tract controls the muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk. Responsible for bilateral movements (i.e., when it’s helpful to have both sides moving)like walking, turning, bending, standing up, and sitting down many parts of the cortex (not just the ones you’ve already learned about in the cerebral cortex)E.g., Reticular formation, midbrain tectum, and vestibular nucleus•Axons of the medial tract go to bothsidesofthespinalcord,notjusttothecontralateralside•The medial tract controls the muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk. Responsible for bilateral movements (i.e., when it’s helpful to have both sides moving)like walking, turning, bending, standing up, and sitting down.

108
Q

Where is the basal ganglia group?

A

Deep inside the brain and span within the midbrain and forebrain regions

109
Q

Describe the cerebellum in basic terms and what happens if you damage it

A

A structure in the brain often associated with balance and coordination. More neurons in the cerebellum than in all other brain areas combined!
Damage to the cerebellum causes trouble with rapid movements requiring aim/timing. Examples: clapping hands, speaking, writing, and so on. The cerebellum is one of the first structures to be targeted by alcohol, which is why lack of coordination is a cardinal sign of intoxication

110
Q

What is one of the first structures affected by alcohol?

A

The cerebellum

111
Q

Describe what the cerebellum is important for (in regards to movement)

A

Important for establishing new motor programs that allow us to complete a “programmed” sequence of stop-and-go actions from start to finish. Also includes tasks that require good timing, in order for the sequence to actually work and achieve the goal. E.g.,speaking, typing, musical instruments, athletics. There are other movements that are oftentimes forgotten as being forms of “movement”. The cerebellum is also critical (along with other brain areas) for certain aspects of attention, such as the ability to shift attention from one task to the other, as well as attending to visual stimuli in the environment

112
Q

What helps establish new motor programs?

A

The cerebellum

113
Q

Describe what the cerebellum is important for besides movement

A

It responds to sensory information even in the absence of movement. It also responds strongly to violations of sensory information. Ex: reaching to touch something but not feeling it, or feeling something when you don’t expect to feel it. In these situations, the cerebellum is like, “Hey! What’s going on?” and is cued to figure out a solution for coordinated movements

114
Q

What are the two layers of the cerebellum? Describe them.

A
  1. Cerebellar cortex (the outer surface layer that you can see)
  2. Nuclei of the cerebellum (clusters of cells inside of the cerebellum)
115
Q

What are the two types of cells in the cerebellar cortex?

A

Purkinje neurons and parallel fibers

116
Q

Describe Purkinje neurons and parallel fibers

A

Purkinje neurons: flat, parallel neurons in sequential rows (you can see their dendrites and cell bodies, below).
Parallel fibers: long axons stretching parallel to one another; perpendicular to rows of of Purkinje neurons

117
Q

How are cerebellar cortex neurons arranged?

A

Cerebellar cortex neurons are arranged in precise, repeated geometrical patterns that provide outputs of well-controlled duration

118
Q

Describe how messages are sent within the cerebellum

A

Action potentials from the axons of parallel fibers excite Purkinje cells/neurons, one after the other in rows. The longer the parallel fibers send messages, the longer the response of the Purkinje neurons. Purkinje cells are inhibitory neurons. Thus,when they are excited by the parallel fibers, they then transmit inhibitory neurotransmitters to:
1.Cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum (clusters of cell bodies inside of the cerebellum) and
2.Cells called vestibular nuclei in the brain stem (i.e., the evolutionarily old “lizard part” of your brain that extends into the spinal cord).
CONTEXT:“vestibular disorders”(if you’ve heard of them) are those related to loss of balance

119
Q

Where do Purkinje neurons send their inhibitory messages to?

A

Cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum and vestibular nuclei

120
Q

Define cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum and vestibular nuclei

A

Cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum (clusters of cell bodies inside of the cerebellum) and
2.Cells called vestibular nuclei in the brain stem (i.e., the evolutionarily old “lizard part” of your brain that extends into the spinal cord).

121
Q

Why would the Purkinje neurons inhibit these deep cerebellar nuclei and vestibular nuclei?

A

The cerebellum plays a critical role in stop-and-go actions and regulating the critical timing of motor program sequences. Purkinje cells regulate the timing of action potentials in these deeper nuclei. It’s like they are the bouncers of an action potential party—so that your movements don’t get too rowdy.

122
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

A group of large subcortical structures in the forebrain; at the base of forebrain and midbrain. Responsible for self-initiating an action not guided by a stimulus (i.e., actions that are proactive, not reactive)

123
Q

Basal ganglia make up what structures?

A
  1. Caudate nucleus
  2. Putamen
  3. Globus pallidus
  4. Substantia nigra (if it’s messed up it results in parkinsons) 5.Subthalamicnucleus
124
Q

What do the basal ganglia structures do and what do they surround?

A

They act as bouncers and create movement by ceasing to inhibit it. They surround the thalamus.

125
Q

What types of actions do the basal ganglia play an important role in?

A

Complex, self-initiated movements. Forming habits (both the good and bad ones). What you do (or don’t) pay attention to in the environment. Determining the vigor of the movements that were “ordered by” the primary motor cortex (located in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex) (more detail in module 4)

126
Q

When learning a new movement, the ___ lobe is highly involved.

A

Frontal

127
Q

Describe motor learning and network formation

A

The learning of new skills requires multiple
brain areas involved in the control of movement. The pattern of activity of the neurons in the motor cortex becomes more consistent as a new skill is
learned. At first, the movements are slow and inconsistent,
like when learning to ride a bike. Over time, neurons start to form networks and increase their firing rates as you become better at the movement

128
Q

___ _____ are critical for turning new motor
skills into “automatic” behaviors and new habits and organizing the sequences of movement,
(Example: after driving a car for a while, using all of the gizmos and gadgets in their correct sequence starts to become automatic)

A

Basal ganglia

129
Q

True or False: The conscious decision to move, and the

movement itself, occur at the same time

A

False: The conscious decision to move, and the movement itself, occur at two different times

130
Q

Describe a readiness potential

A

A readiness potential is a particular type of
activity in the motor cortex that occurs before any type of voluntary movement. Begins at least 200 milliseconds before the movement. Implies that we become aware of our decision to move after the process has already begun.

131
Q

Seizure disorders are characterized by what?

A

Seizure disorders are characterized by abnormally high excitation in neurons.

132
Q

True or false: Not all people who appear to have seizures have epilepsy

A

True

133
Q

Describe epilepsy and why it happens

A

Epilepsy is a seizure disorder that is characterized by repeated episodes of excessive, synchronized neural activity
These episodes happen as a result of suppression of GABA

134
Q

Describe Symptomatic Seizure Disorders

A

Those where a specific cause can be identified with a specific cause
Trauma, infection, tumor, toxins

135
Q

Describe Idiopathic Seizure Disorders

A

Those that appear spontaneously and in the absence of other diseases of the central nervous system

136
Q

Describe partial seizures

A

Electrical discharges in a relatively small group of dysfunctional neurons in one cerebral hemisphere. Aura (warning) may reflect site of origin. May or may not result in a loss of consciousness (LOC)

137
Q

Describe generalized seizures

A

Diffuse abnormal electrical discharges from both hemispheres. Both hemispheres are involved symmetrically. No warning. Always experience a loss of consciousness (LOC)

138
Q

What are the two types of generalized seizure?

A

Grand Mal Seizure and Petit Mal Seizure

139
Q

Describe grand mal seizures

A

Characterized by loss of consciousness and stereotyped motor activity. Tonic stage: body stiffens and breathing stops. Clonic stage: rhythmic shaking

140
Q

Describe petit mal seizures

A

Brief duration and characterized by loss of awareness with no motor activity except for blinking, turning the head, or rolling the eyes

141
Q

True or false: Partial seizures affect the whole brain

A

False; partial seizures affect localized regions of the brain. Generalized seizures affect the whole brain

142
Q

What are the two general treatments for epilepsy?

A

Anticonvulsant drugs or surgery

143
Q

Describe the 4 types of surgeries performed to treat epilepsy

A

Lobe resection-remove the seizure focus;
Corpus callosotomy - this stops communication between the hemispheres and prevents the spread of seizures from one side of your brain to the other;
Multiple subpial transection (MST) - a series of shallow cuts in the brain tissue to interrupt the flow of seizure impulses but don’t disturb normal brain activity;
Functional hemispherectomy- the hemisphere left in place but disconnected from the rest of your brain; only a limited area of brain is removed (mostly for children younger than 13).

144
Q

Define degenerative disorders and give 2 examples

A

Disorders that continue to worsen over time and are caused by degeneration (withering) of brain cells. Ex: Parkinson’s, Huntington’s

145
Q

Describe Parkinson’s disease

A

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder. However, it is now known to have variety of non-motor symptoms as well

146
Q

What are the most common symptoms of Parkinson’s?

A

Tremor (shaking usually starts on one side of the body, often in the hand or finger)
Rigidity (stiffness where the limbs feel like lead)
Akinesia (difficulty in initiating movement and slowness of movement)
Problems with balance

147
Q

What causes Parkinson’s?

A

Caused by gradual and progressive death of neurons, particularly in an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra. In a health individual the neurons in the substantia nigra secrete significant amounts of dopamine and send that dopamine to the the basal ganglia; For reasons not yet understood, the dopamine-producing nerve cells of the substantia nigra begin to die

148
Q

What happens in Parkinson’s patients when around 80-90% of dopamine is lost?

A

PD symptoms such as tremor, slowness of movement, stiffness, and balance problems occur.

149
Q

Describe the risk factors for Parkinson’s

A

Early-onset PD (diagnosed before age 50) has a genetic link. However, late onset PD (after age 50), appears more clearly linked to environmental factors – like exposure to toxins.

150
Q

Describe the available drug treatments Parkinson’s treatments

A

Drug Treatments are most common for PD. But no drug treatment cures the disease.
L-DOPA is the most commonly used drug. It is a precursor for dopamine, so once inside the blood brain barrier it only supplies the brain with dopamine – it does not prevent the continued loss of neurons within the substantia nigra (it alleviates the problem – it doesn’t fix it).
Deprenyl - attacks the other end of the dopamine-preservation process by inhibiting the action of the MAO-B – enzyme that breaks down dopamine

151
Q

Describe the non-drug treatments for Parkinson’s

A

An alternative treatment is Deep Brain Stimulation.
For this treatment, a device is implanted (by surgeons) into the patient’s brain.
The device delivers high frequency electrical stimulation of the globus pallidus – a section of the basal ganglia that does not rely on dopamine.
This stimulation stops most tremors and enhances the patient’s movement.

152
Q

Describe Huntington’s disease

A

An inherited condition on chromosome 4 in which nerve cells within the basal ganglia break down over time
Characterized by progressively more severe uncontrollable jerk movements, writhing movements, dementia, and finally death
At present, there is no treatment for Huntington’s disease

153
Q

Describe the symptoms of Huntington’s

A

Symptoms tend to begin in person’s thirties and forties, sometimes as early as in infancy.
Movements look like fragments of purposeful movements, occur involuntarily
Disease is progressive, includes cognitive and emotional changes,
Death usually occurs within ten to fifteen years after symptoms begin

154
Q

A ballistic movement ____.

a) is guided by feedback during the course of the movement
b) proceeds automatically once it has been triggered
c) tends to overcorrect itself
d) is a rhythmic alternation between two movements

A

b) proceeds automatically once it has been triggered

155
Q

A boxer’s ability to sense the position of his arm and hand before planning a punch is fundamentally dependent on the sense of ____.

a) vision
b) proprioception
c) pain
d) somatosensation

A

b) proprioception

156
Q

A motor program is a ____.

a) mechanism that guides movement on the basis of sensory feedback
b) mechanism that produces an alternation between two movements
c) plan for training a brain-damaged person to walk
d) movement that, once triggered, continues automatically until its completion

A

d) movement that, once triggered, continues automatically until its completion

157
Q

A muscle spindle responds to the ____.

a) stretch of the muscle
b) oxygen level in the muscle
c) fatigue of the muscle
d) acetylcholine concentration

A

a) stretch of the muscle

158
Q

A physician who asks you to cross your legs and then taps just below the knee is testing your ____.

a) stretch reflexes
b) slow reflexes
c) constriction reflexes
d) fast reflex

A

a) stretch reflexes

159
Q

Exercising at a high altitude where there is less oxygen is most likely to affect ____.

a. anaerobic contraction
b. fast-twitch fibers
c. intermediate fibers
d. slow-twitch fibers

A

d. slow-twitch fibers

160
Q 
Moving a leg or arm back and forth requires opposing sets of muscles known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
  reflex muscles 
  paired muscles 
  agonistic muscles 
  antagonistic muscles
A

antagonistic muscles

161
Q

The role of the Golgi tendon organs is to ____.
produce rapid repetitive movements, such as finger tapping
prevent extreme muscle contractions
guard against fatigue of muscles
regulate blood flow to the tendons and muscles

A

prevent extreme muscle contractions

162
Q 
What type of muscle is responsible for the movement of your body through the environment?
  Striated 
  Cardiac 
  Smooth 
  Syncarpous
A

Striated

163
Q 
Which behavior is most likely to result from the activity of central pattern generators?
  A child playing the piano 
  A child catching a baseball 
  A bird flying 
  An adult yawning
A

A bird flying

164
Q 
Lucina is painting with a small brush in each hand. To do this movement, she needs activation via the \_\_\_\_\_.
  medial tract 
  lateral tract 
  dorsal tract 
  ventral tract
A

lateral tract

165
Q

Recent studies about voluntary movements and conscious decisions have found that ____.
voluntary movements are the result of free will
we are unable to judge when we make conscious decisions
we are conscious of our decision before brain activity is generated for movement
brain activity for the movement begins before we are conscious of our decision

A

brain activity for the movement begins before we are conscious of our decision

166
Q 
Saccades are initiated by the \_\_\_\_.
  hippocampus 
  spinal cord 
  hypothalamus 
  cerebellum
A

cerebellum

167
Q 
The basal ganglia are crucial to \_\_\_\_.
  involuntary movements 
  unlearned movements 
  self-initiated movements 
  reflexive movements
A

self-initiated movements

168
Q

The cerebellum is most important for any process that requires ____.
precise timing
detecting the intensity of a stimulus
comparison between the left and right hemispheres
control of muscle strength

A

precise timing

169
Q 
The corticospinal tract extends from the \_\_\_\_\_ .
  basal ganglia to the spinal cord 
  cerebral cortex to the spinal cord 
  spinal cord to the cerebellum 
  cerebral cortex to the cerebellum
A

cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

170
Q 
The lateral tract crossover point is in the \_\_\_\_.
  vestibular nucleus 
  pyramids of the medulla 
  spinal cord 
  reticular formation
A

pyramids of the medulla

171
Q

The motor cortex _____.
relies on feedback from individual muscle fibers
sends axons to the brainstem and spinal cord
has direct connections to the muscles
controls isolated movement in a single muscle

A

sends axons to the brainstem and spinal cord

172
Q 
The structure composed of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus is the \_\_\_\_.
  limbic system 
  cerebellum 
  basal ganglia 
  sympathetic nervous system
A

basal ganglia

173
Q 
Which widely branching cells are responsible for all of the output from the cerebellar cortex to the nuclei of the cerebellum?
  Spindle fibers 
  Parallel fibers 
  Purkinje cells 
  Putamen cells
A

Purkinje cells

Biological Psychology (7 decks)

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