The Industrial Period

Question 1

In what year did Jenner test the idea that cowpox created immunity to smallpox?

Answer 1

1796

Question 2

Who did Jenner test the idea that cowpox created immunity to smallpox on?

Answer 2

James Phipps

Question 3

How many people did Jenner vaccinate to check his findings?

Answer 3

23 people

Question 4

What happened when Jenner tried to publish his findings?

Answer 4

• The Royal Society refused to publish his report about his experiments and findings
• He paid for it to be published himself in 1798

Question 5

What was the Jennerian Society?

Answer 5

• Towards the end of 1802, it was set up in London to provide free vaccinations against smallpox
• Within two years over 12,000 people had been vaccinated

Question 6

What did the British government award Jenner and why?

Answer 6

In 1802, they awarded him £10,000 in recognition of his hard work and a further £20,000 in 1807

Question 7

In what year did the British government make the vaccination against smallpox compulsory?

Answer 7

In 1852, although it was not strictly enforced until 1872

Question 8

In what year did the World Health Organisation officially declared smallpox had been eradicated?

Answer 8

1980

Question 9

It has been estimated that the work of who has saved more human lives than any other individual?

Answer 9

Edward Jenner’s work

Question 10

What were four reasons why people opposed Jenner’s ideas?

Answer 10

• Jenner could not explain how it worker
• It was unbelievable that a disease from cows could protect humans
• Doctors who made money out of inoculations did not want to lose money
• It was dangerous. Some doctors mixed up their vaccines

Question 11

Describe hospitals in the Industrial period pre-Nightingale (1850s)

Answer 11

• Where you were treated depended on how much money you had
• Home was a much healthier place
• There were local cottage hospitals and workhouses
• There were voluntary hospitals with around 4,000 beds

Question 12

How did Florence Nightingale improve nursing?

Answer 12

• Created the first medical school at St Thomas’ Hospital
• In 1859, wrote ‘Notes on Nursing’
• Trained nurses in practical skills
• Nursing became a respected profession

Question 13

How did Florence Nightingale improve hospitals?

Answer 13

• Cleaned horrible conditions at the army hospital in Scutari during the Crimean War
• Improved hygiene and cleanliness
• In 1863, wrote ‘Notes on Hospitals’
• Improved sanitation, ventilation and supplies in hospitals
• Death rates fell from 40% to 2%
• Influenced government to enforce engineering works on hospitals

Question 14

In what years did Nightingale wrote her two books?

Answer 14

• 1859 - ‘Notes on Nursing’

- 1863 - ‘Notes on Hospitals’

Question 15

Describe hospitals in the Industrial period post-Nightingale (by 1900s)

Answer 15

• Sanitation - clean water supplies, good drains and sewers, toilet facilities
• Good ventilation - made sure patients got fresh, clean air to breathe
• Good supplies - clothing and washing facilities
• Trained nurses - practical skills

Question 16

What were the six healers during the Industrial period and what did they do?

Answer 16

• Mother/wise women - less access to herbal remedies, so relied more on apothecaries
• Nurses could be hired by the rich - quality and training varied
• Pharmaceutical companies - the money made by patent medicines encouraged people to set up their own medicine shops and produce their own brands
• Trained doctors - after 1815 doctors had to be registered, examined and licensed, but only rich could afford fees
• GPs - cared for working class, but still had to be paid. Some had ‘sick clubs’ where patients made weekly payments to cover costs
• Quacks - healers with no training

Question 17

How were doctors trained during the Industrial period?

Answer 17

• In universities - lectures and reading books, with some practical training on hospital wards
• Observed symptoms and took case histories - carried out dissections
• Not to rely on what they had read - observation
• The professors at the university decide on the training doctors receive

Question 18

In what year in the Industrial period were exams introduced for some healers, and who for?

Answer 18

In 1815, the Society of Apothecaries and Royal College of Surgeons introduced exams

Question 19

In what year did all qualified doctors have to be registered and why?

Answer 19

By 1858, because the General Medical Council was set up. However, there was no government regulation

Question 20

From what year were women accepted as doctors?

Answer 20

1876

Question 21

How did Louis Pasteur come up with his Germ Theory?

Answer 21

• worked for industries in France
• experiments suggested beer, wine and milk were going sour because of microbes in the air
• suggested microbes were the cause of disease

Question 22

In what year did Pasteur publish his Germ Theory?

Answer 22

1861

Question 23

In what year did Pasteur prove his Germ Theory?

Answer 23

1864, through a series of experiments

Question 24

What led Pasteur to investigate human diseases, and what happened?

Answer 24

• the death of his young daughter in 1865 and the outbreak of cholera
• but he only saw a confused mass of bacteria and could not discover what was causing cholera

Question 25

What inspired Robert Koch to study bacteria?

Answer 25

• was interested in Pasteur’s work

- saw each other as rivals in the war between France and Germany 1870-1871

Question 26

What did Koch set out to find and how did he succeed?

Answer 26

• set out to find the specific microbe or bacterium causing a specific disease
• succeeded when he investigated anthrax, a disease common in animals that could also infect people
• it was the first time anyone identified a specific microbe causing a disease

Question 27

When could other scientists use Koch’s method?

Answer 27

In 1882, he found a why of staining the microbe causing the disease so it stood out under the microscope, so other scientists could use this method

Question 28

What three diseases did Koch find the specific microbes for?

Answer 28

Anthrax
Tuberculosis
Cholera

Question 29

Using Koch’s method, what diseases did other scientists find the specific causing microbes for?

Answer 29

1882 - Typhoid
1883 - Cholera
1886 - Pneumonia
1887 - Meningitis
1894 - Plague

Question 30

How did Pasteur develop on Jenner and Koch’s work?

Answer 30

Now he knew specific microbes causes disease, he carried out experiments to find more vaccines

Question 31

What diseases did Pasteur develop vaccines for?

Answer 31

Chicken cholera
Anthrax
Rabies

Question 32

Who did Pasteur test his rabies vaccine on and in what year?

Answer 32

Joseph Meister, in 1885, who had been bitten by a rabid dog

Question 33

How did Pasteur and Koch’s work affect the average life expectancy?

Answer 33

It was raised from 45 to 70 years

Question 34

What did people believe caused disease in the Industrial period before Germ Theory?

Answer 34

• Spontaneous generation
• Religious ideas
• Four humours
• Miasma

Question 35

Whose work did Germ Theory now explain?

Answer 35

Jenner and Nightingale’s

Question 36

Why was nothing done about public health in the early 1800s? (4)

Answer 36

• Vested interests - selfishness of the rich, refusal to pay for improvements, didn’t want to be bullied into it
• Pasteur’s germ theory not published or accepted
• People object to government ‘interfering’ with their lives
• Government not expected to help

Question 37

What were conditions like in the early 1800s, and why? (4)

Answer 37

• Railways weren’t built, workers had to live close to places of work
• Back-to-back housing - towns grew fast, landlords wanted houses built quickly for profit
• Working conditions horrible - long hours and short breaks, toilet and washing facilities poor, coal and dust caused lung disease
• Food was often adulterated by shopkeepers to increase weight and make more money from sales

Question 38

What was needed to stop the cholera epidemics in the Industrial period?

Answer 38

Public health needed to be reformed

Question 39

What did Chadwick do?

Answer 39

• collected statistics about conditions of the poor
• wrote ‘The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population’ in 1842
• suggested it would be cheaper if local taxes were used to improve hygiene and housing rather than supporting the sick
• suggested providing clean water, removal of sewage and rubbish, local council had to take charge
• little was done until 1848 cholera epidemic

Question 40

What did Bazalgette do?

Answer 40

• a civil engineer
• in 1852, fought for improvement of the London sewers
• believed miasma was causing the problems so London needed to wash away the smells

Question 41

What did John Snow do?

Answer 41

• 1854
• worked on cholera epidemic in Soho
• at Broad Street, worked out dirty water caused the cholera, not miasma by showing link between water pumps and deaths
• did not have germ theory to prove

Question 42

What did the cholera epidemics in the Industrial period do and when were they?

Answer 42

• made people realise public health needed to be reformed
• influenced people to believe Chadwick and Snow
• 1831-1832
• 1848
• 1853
• 1866

Question 43

What was the Great Stink?

Answer 43

• 1858
• in London, sewage was so bad that in the heat of the summer there was a ‘Great Stink’
• affected everyone, including the politicians in Westminster
• made them realise something needed to be done

Question 44

In what year was the first public health act?

Answer 44

1848

Question 45

Describe the 1848 Public Health Act

Answer 45

• not enforced
• established Central Board of Health (but no power or money)
• encouraged towns to clean up

Question 46

Other than the public health acts, what two government acts improved public health in the Industrial period?

Answer 46

1864 - Factory Act
- made unhealthy conditions in factories illegal
1866 - Sanitary Act
- made local authorities responsible for sewers, water and street cleaning
1867 - Reform Act
- some working class men were given the opportunity to vote for MPs, so the government had to cater for their wishes

Question 47

In what year was the second public health act?

Answer 47

1875

Question 48

Describe the 1875 Public Health Act

Answer 48

• compulsory
• local authorities had to appoint Medical Officers in charge of public health
• local authorities ordered to cover sewers, keep them in good condition, supply fresh water to citizens, collect rubbish, provide street lighting