The Industrial Period Flashcards
In what year did Jenner test the idea that cowpox created immunity to smallpox?
1796
Who did Jenner test the idea that cowpox created immunity to smallpox on?
James Phipps
How many people did Jenner vaccinate to check his findings?
23 people
What happened when Jenner tried to publish his findings?
- The Royal Society refused to publish his report about his experiments and findings
- He paid for it to be published himself in 1798
What was the Jennerian Society?
- Towards the end of 1802, it was set up in London to provide free vaccinations against smallpox
- Within two years over 12,000 people had been vaccinated
What did the British government award Jenner and why?
In 1802, they awarded him £10,000 in recognition of his hard work and a further £20,000 in 1807
In what year did the British government make the vaccination against smallpox compulsory?
In 1852, although it was not strictly enforced until 1872
In what year did the World Health Organisation officially declared smallpox had been eradicated?
1980
It has been estimated that the work of who has saved more human lives than any other individual?
Edward Jenner’s work
What were four reasons why people opposed Jenner’s ideas?
- Jenner could not explain how it worker
- It was unbelievable that a disease from cows could protect humans
- Doctors who made money out of inoculations did not want to lose money
- It was dangerous. Some doctors mixed up their vaccines
Describe hospitals in the Industrial period pre-Nightingale (1850s)
- Where you were treated depended on how much money you had
- Home was a much healthier place
- There were local cottage hospitals and workhouses
- There were voluntary hospitals with around 4,000 beds
How did Florence Nightingale improve nursing?
- Created the first medical school at St Thomas’ Hospital
- In 1859, wrote ‘Notes on Nursing’
- Trained nurses in practical skills
- Nursing became a respected profession
How did Florence Nightingale improve hospitals?
- Cleaned horrible conditions at the army hospital in Scutari during the Crimean War
- Improved hygiene and cleanliness
- In 1863, wrote ‘Notes on Hospitals’
- Improved sanitation, ventilation and supplies in hospitals
- Death rates fell from 40% to 2%
- Influenced government to enforce engineering works on hospitals
In what years did Nightingale wrote her two books?
- 1859 - ‘Notes on Nursing’
- 1863 - ‘Notes on Hospitals’
Describe hospitals in the Industrial period post-Nightingale (by 1900s)
- Sanitation - clean water supplies, good drains and sewers, toilet facilities
- Good ventilation - made sure patients got fresh, clean air to breathe
- Good supplies - clothing and washing facilities
- Trained nurses - practical skills
What were the six healers during the Industrial period and what did they do?
- Mother/wise women - less access to herbal remedies, so relied more on apothecaries
- Nurses could be hired by the rich - quality and training varied
- Pharmaceutical companies - the money made by patent medicines encouraged people to set up their own medicine shops and produce their own brands
- Trained doctors - after 1815 doctors had to be registered, examined and licensed, but only rich could afford fees
- GPs - cared for working class, but still had to be paid. Some had ‘sick clubs’ where patients made weekly payments to cover costs
- Quacks - healers with no training
How were doctors trained during the Industrial period?
- In universities - lectures and reading books, with some practical training on hospital wards
- Observed symptoms and took case histories - carried out dissections
- Not to rely on what they had read - observation
- The professors at the university decide on the training doctors receive
In what year in the Industrial period were exams introduced for some healers, and who for?
In 1815, the Society of Apothecaries and Royal College of Surgeons introduced exams
In what year did all qualified doctors have to be registered and why?
By 1858, because the General Medical Council was set up. However, there was no government regulation
From what year were women accepted as doctors?
1876
How did Louis Pasteur come up with his Germ Theory?
- worked for industries in France
- experiments suggested beer, wine and milk were going sour because of microbes in the air
- suggested microbes were the cause of disease
In what year did Pasteur publish his Germ Theory?
1861
In what year did Pasteur prove his Germ Theory?
1864, through a series of experiments
What led Pasteur to investigate human diseases, and what happened?
- the death of his young daughter in 1865 and the outbreak of cholera
- but he only saw a confused mass of bacteria and could not discover what was causing cholera
What inspired Robert Koch to study bacteria?
- was interested in Pasteur’s work
- saw each other as rivals in the war between France and Germany 1870-1871
What did Koch set out to find and how did he succeed?
- set out to find the specific microbe or bacterium causing a specific disease
- succeeded when he investigated anthrax, a disease common in animals that could also infect people
- it was the first time anyone identified a specific microbe causing a disease
When could other scientists use Koch’s method?
In 1882, he found a why of staining the microbe causing the disease so it stood out under the microscope, so other scientists could use this method
What three diseases did Koch find the specific microbes for?
Anthrax
Tuberculosis
Cholera
Using Koch’s method, what diseases did other scientists find the specific causing microbes for?
1882 - Typhoid 1883 - Cholera 1886 - Pneumonia 1887 - Meningitis 1894 - Plague
How did Pasteur develop on Jenner and Koch’s work?
Now he knew specific microbes causes disease, he carried out experiments to find more vaccines
What diseases did Pasteur develop vaccines for?
Chicken cholera
Anthrax
Rabies
Who did Pasteur test his rabies vaccine on and in what year?
Joseph Meister, in 1885, who had been bitten by a rabid dog
How did Pasteur and Koch’s work affect the average life expectancy?
It was raised from 45 to 70 years
What did people believe caused disease in the Industrial period before Germ Theory?
- Spontaneous generation
- Religious ideas
- Four humours
- Miasma
Whose work did Germ Theory now explain?
Jenner and Nightingale’s
Why was nothing done about public health in the early 1800s? (4)
- Vested interests - selfishness of the rich, refusal to pay for improvements, didn’t want to be bullied into it
- Pasteur’s germ theory not published or accepted
- People object to government ‘interfering’ with their lives
- Government not expected to help
What were conditions like in the early 1800s, and why? (4)
- Railways weren’t built, workers had to live close to places of work
- Back-to-back housing - towns grew fast, landlords wanted houses built quickly for profit
- Working conditions horrible - long hours and short breaks, toilet and washing facilities poor, coal and dust caused lung disease
- Food was often adulterated by shopkeepers to increase weight and make more money from sales
What was needed to stop the cholera epidemics in the Industrial period?
Public health needed to be reformed
What did Chadwick do?
- collected statistics about conditions of the poor
- wrote ‘The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population’ in 1842
- suggested it would be cheaper if local taxes were used to improve hygiene and housing rather than supporting the sick
- suggested providing clean water, removal of sewage and rubbish, local council had to take charge
- little was done until 1848 cholera epidemic
What did Bazalgette do?
- a civil engineer
- in 1852, fought for improvement of the London sewers
- believed miasma was causing the problems so London needed to wash away the smells
What did John Snow do?
- 1854
- worked on cholera epidemic in Soho
- at Broad Street, worked out dirty water caused the cholera, not miasma by showing link between water pumps and deaths
- did not have germ theory to prove
What did the cholera epidemics in the Industrial period do and when were they?
- made people realise public health needed to be reformed
- influenced people to believe Chadwick and Snow
- 1831-1832
- 1848
- 1853
- 1866
What was the Great Stink?
- 1858
- in London, sewage was so bad that in the heat of the summer there was a ‘Great Stink’
- affected everyone, including the politicians in Westminster
- made them realise something needed to be done
In what year was the first public health act?
1848
Describe the 1848 Public Health Act
- not enforced
- established Central Board of Health (but no power or money)
- encouraged towns to clean up
Other than the public health acts, what two government acts improved public health in the Industrial period?
1864 - Factory Act
- made unhealthy conditions in factories illegal
1866 - Sanitary Act
- made local authorities responsible for sewers, water and street cleaning
1867 - Reform Act
- some working class men were given the opportunity to vote for MPs, so the government had to cater for their wishes
In what year was the second public health act?
1875
Describe the 1875 Public Health Act
- compulsory
- local authorities had to appoint Medical Officers in charge of public health
- local authorities ordered to cover sewers, keep them in good condition, supply fresh water to citizens, collect rubbish, provide street lighting
