The individual and the group Flashcards
What is the social identity theory?
This refers to the way someone thinks about themselves and evaluates themselves in relation to groups. SIT supposes that a person’s sense of who they are is based on their membership of social groups. This theory was first proposed by Henri Tajfel (1971)
What is an ingroup and an outgroup?
in:
- A group that an individual identifies with and feels a sense of belonging to.
-it’s the group you see as “us.”
- People tend to show favoritism toward their ingroup (called ingroup bias).
Out:
- A group that an individual does not identify with and may see as different or separate.
- It’s the group you see as “them.”
-Outgroups may be subject to discrimination or negative stereotypes.
What are the 3 processes tajfel identified in his theory?
- Categorisation
- Social identification
- Social comparison
What is categorisation?
This is a process of organising objects and people (including ourselves) into groups. If we belong to such a category, then we share those attributes.
What is social identification?
This is when we adopt the identity of ‘our’ group. Social identification is the process by which an individual adopts the identity of the group they belong to — the ingroup. It involves aligning your self-concept, values, attitudes, and behavior with the group.
What is social comparison?
This involves comparing your group with others . Social comparison is the process of comparing your ingroup to relevant outgroups to boost or protect your self-esteem.
Once you’ve identified with a group (social identification), you begin to evaluate your group positively and, in some cases, view outgroups negatively to enhance your own group’s status — and by extension, your own self-worth.
What is the social representation theory?
Social Representation Theory (Moscovici, 1961) suggests that people in a society share common ideas, values, beliefs, and practices — called social representations — that help them make sense of the world and communicate with others.
What is the social cognitive theory?
This suggests behavior is modelled by other members of a group and acquired through observation or imitation based on the consequences of a behavior. It explains how people learn by observing others — through a process called observational learning — and how this learning is influenced by cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors. This was developed by Bandura (1977)
What is external reinforcement?
External reinforcement refers to rewards or consequences that come from outside the individual, such as praise, rewards, recognition, or punishment. These external outcomes influence the likelihood of repeating a behavior.
What is internal reinforcement?
Internal reinforcement involves personal, internal responses to behavior, such as feelings of pride, satisfaction, guilt, or shame. These emotional or cognitive responses help shape future behavior, even without external feedback.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes someone else being rewarded or punished for a behavior and then modifies their own behavior based on that observation. The person learns the consequences of the behavior indirectly, without having to experience it themselves.
What is Identification?
this is the process by which an individual relates to and adopts the behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs of another person (the role model), often because they admire, respect, or want to be like that person. Identification increases the likelihood that the observer will imitate the model’s behavior.
What is the concept of self-efficacy?
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their ability to successfully perform a specific task or behavior, based on past experiences, confidence, and perceived control over the outcome. The sense of self-efficacy is shaped by past situations and experiences that a person encounters in life.
What is the difference between Social Cognitive Theory and Social Identity Theory?
Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) explains how individuals learn behaviors by observing others, focusing on processes like attention, motivation, and self-efficacy.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner) explains how people derive their identity from group membership, leading to ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination.
What are the strengths of Social Cognitive Theory?
- Explains how aggression, stereotypes, and gender roles are learned through observation.
- Accounts for both cognitive processes and social influences.
- Highlights the role of role models, media, and peer influence.
- Has practical applications, such as modelling-based therapies for treating phobias.
- Supported by controlled experimental research, allowing for cause-and-effect conclusions.
What are the limitations of Social Cognitive Theory?
- Some studies lack ecological validity due to artificial lab settings.
- May oversimplify complex behavior by focusing too much on observational learning.
- Does not fully explain individual differences in response to the same observed behavior.
What is a stereotype?
A stereotype is a generalized and rather fixed way of thinking about a group of people. Cardwell (1996) defines it as a fixed, over-generalized belief about a particular group of people. They can be positive or negative, but they fail to consider any variations from one individual to another. A stereotype can be considered a schema (we categorise people into a group and apply general characteristics).
What is the theory of illusory correlations?
This is developed by Hamilton + Gifford (1976). The theory of illusory correlations explains how people form stereotypes by perceiving a relationship between two unrelated variables, often because they co-occur infrequently but stand out. These unusual pairings (e.g., minority group + negative behavior) capture attention and are encoded more strongly, leading to the false belief that a certain trait is more common in a particular group than it actually is
How do cognitive biases help explain why stereotypes persist?
The availability heuristic causes us to overestimate the frequency of behaviors that are easily recalled, making stereotypes feel more “true.”
Confirmation bias leads us to focus on information that supports our existing beliefs (e.g., bad driving by young people) and ignore contradictory evidence, reinforcing the stereotype.
What are the theories of why stereotypes can arise?
- theory of illusory correlations
- grain of truth hypothesis
- gatekeeper theory
Campbell (1976) state stereotypes can be formed from two sources. What are they?
-From a person’s own experiences with that group of people
- They can learn about groups of people through gatekeepers (EX media).
In both cases, there is a small amount of evidence (grain of truth) that gets exaggerated and generalized. Gatekeepers use stereotypes to define groups and their members, and these stereotypes become part of the culture and are seen as ‘true’
Is stereotyping influenced by individual personality traits?
Research suggests that some individuals may be more prone to stereotyping due to personality factors.
Allport (1954) argued that prejudiced individuals have different cognitive processes than tolerant people.
Schaller et al. (1995) supported the idea of a “prejudiced personality”, but also noted that social context can increase or reduce the tendency to form stereotypes.
What are the effects of stereotypes?
They have powerful effects on how we view and interact with others. Information about other groups can be subject to bias and distortion and poor judgements about others can easily follow
