The Importance of Intellectuals on the Growth of Science and Reason

Question 1

How was Gresham College different to other universities at the time?

Answer 1

-Gresham impacted on Universities, and therefore wider education. Astronomy and geometry were not recognised by Oxbridge until professorships were created by Gresham.

Question 2

How did astronomy and geometry grow in universities?

Answer 2

• In 1619, professorships in astronomy and geometry were founded at Oxford and those who filled these vacancies, in the first decade were chosen from Gresham.

Question 3

How did Gresham College impact witchcraft belief?

Answer 3

Therefore, Gresham, led the way in promoting the academic importance of mathematics and, by extension, advancement in science and reason.

Question 4

What were the negatives surrounding Gresham College?

Answer 4

Gresham was not a formal and recognised institution. There was no Royal Charter for it and support from the King.

Question 5

How did Gresham College NOT impact witchcraft belief?

Answer 5

• The “invisible college” began meeting in 1645, a time of political upheaval in England (The Civil War) and when hysteria still ran deep within communities (E.g. East Anglia).
• Its impact was limited to academic circles.

Question 6

How was the Royal Society important for Science and reason?

Answer 6

• The Society was a second chance for religious nonconformists, there was an easier avenue for challenging ideas to get out
• The Society established a reputation for genuinely pushing the boundaries of science.
• The Society helped publish the work of Isaac Newton and John Locke.

Question 7

How did the Royal Society change witchcraft belief?

Answer 7

Some historians have argued that the RS undermined belief in witchcraft and magic through its focus on critical investigation, the work of Francis Bacon

Question 8

How did the Royal Society NOT change witchcraft belief?

Answer 8

The Society’s early members were interested in magical areas of study. Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, John Aubrey and Thomas Henshaw all took an interest in astrology or alchemy.

Question 9

How did the Royal Society help feed into the idea of witchcraft?

Answer 9

Joseph Glanvill made much of his reputation as a member of the Society when he argued for the existence of witches. He tried to use the Baconian method to argue for the existence of witches.

Question 10

How did the Royal Society create doubt, which ultimately didn’t change witchcraft belief?

Answer 10

The Society’s commitment to inductive reasoning seemed to highlight some of its flaws → whenever the inductive method is used, an element of doubt can always exist

Question 11

What were the two ideas Francis Bacon proposed?

Answer 11

Empiricism and Inductive Reasoning

Question 12

What is empiricism?

Answer 12

• experiencing something through senses is the predominant focus of expanding knowledge
• our knowledge of nature depends upon our observations of natural phenomena

Question 13

What is Inductive Reasoning?

Answer 13

Observing something and forming a conclusion based on what is observed

Question 14

What was the impact of Francis Bacon’s ‘Proficience of Learning’ (1605)?

Answer 14

A noticeable change in acceptance of evidence from shortly before to afterwards.

Question 15

What is an example of change in acceptance of evidence after Francis Bacon?

Answer 15

• Lord Chief Justice Sir Edmund Anderson (1602), he was willing to suspend normal ‘proofs’ and convict on ‘presumptions’.
  -Heneage Finch, a leading legal figure, oversaw a trial in 1620s where the Justice of the Peace, rather than convicting on conscience they convicted on ‘hard’ evidence- the Devil’s Mark

Question 16

What does this change in acceptance of evidence suggest?

Answer 16

Suggests there was a slight change in attitudes towards requirements to find a witch guilty across all levels of the judiciary system

Question 17

What were the two ideas Thomas Hobbes proposed?

Answer 17

Materialism and Deductive thought

Question 18

What is Materialism?

Answer 18

• everything is created by matter and that all observed events are the result of matter acting on matter.
• concepts such as the soul and existence of witchcraft could be questioned.

Question 19

What is Deductive Thought?

Answer 19

• Application of existing rules
• Testing of prepositions
• Use of preconceived theories with facts collected to prove theory.

Question 20

What was the impact of Thomas Hobbes?

Answer 20

An increasing number of judges and jurors aware of the logic and rationality behind ideas from people like Hobbes.

Question 21

What is an example of judges aware of more rationality?

Answer 21

Joan Buts, Surrey 1682 was found innocent as the jury found it difficult to prove. The presiding judge, Matthew Hale, purposefully left out evidence (a significant amount of spectral evidence) so that the jurors would led by their heart.

Question 22

What does the impact of Thomas Hobbes suggest?

Answer 22

• Indicates that the spread of ideas was increasing and affecting even more levels of the judiciary
• Reveals that public attitudes towards spectral evidence was significant, if Hale was concerned about how it might affect the decision

Question 23

What was another impact of Thomas Hobbes?

Answer 23

A shift in accusing people of witchcraft, to finding the accusers guilty

Question 24

What is an example of accusers being found guilty?

Answer 24

• Sir John Holt, in 1701 Richard Hathaway was found guilty for falsely accusing a woman named Sarah Moordike
• John Holt focussed on the evidence that was provided, and questioned experts on the ‘scientificity’ of the evidence, asked whether it was possible for someone to live for 2 weeks without eating.

Question 25

What does accusers now being found guilty highlight?

Answer 25

• The first time someone was found guilty of false accusations
• Highlights how the principles of deductive reasoning and materialism could be applied to witchcraft

Question 26

How did John Locke’s essay ‘Concerning Human Understanding’ (1690) change witchcraft belief?

Answer 26

• He made no allowance for the supernatural, due to the strength of his belief in materialism and empiricism
• Evidence to suggest Holt was influenced by Locke’s ideas through his opinion of the City of London v Wood Case but this wasn’t in relation to witchcraft

Question 27

How did John Locke’s essay ‘Concerning Human Understanding’ (1690) NOT change witchcraft belief?

Answer 27

• He did NOT say spirits did not exist, instead he had not experienced them and so could not say that they did/did not
• As spirits can be perceived in different ways, they can never be proved.
  -Locke’s denial of innate ideas was interpreted by some contemporaries as heresy

Question 28

How important were judges in bringing witch hunts to an end?

Answer 28

The actions of judges were crucial to bringing the witch hunts to an end. Alice Molland became the last woman to be executed for witchcraft in 1685, while Jane Wenham was the last woman to be tried and acquitted of witchcraft in 1712.

Question 29

How did witch trials become more impossible?

Answer 29

Due to higher degree of scepticism, and higher standards of evidence, witch trials became more and more impossible - it was too difficult to prove the crime. A materialist approach and a rejection of spectral evidence was now the norm in courts.

Question 30

What happened to the 1604 Witchcraft Act?

Answer 30

In 1736 the 1604 Witchcraft Act was overturned, this would not have happened without the willingness of Judges to acquit and, in the case of Judges like Holt, put the accusers on the stand.

Question 31

What were judges willing to be?

Answer 31

Judges after 1660 were willing to be “activist” with their scepticism, which protected more and more of the accused. This was shown through George McKenzie representing a lady accused of being a witch as her solicitor and John Holt acquitting in every witch trial he presided over.

Question 32

Why was John Holt so important?

Answer 32

John Holt was significant in that he revealed a dramatic change in the attitude of the Judge in his particular role as Chief Justice. His predecessor, Matthew Hale, had been willing to admit any evidence in order to secure convictions.

Question 33

How were judges not able to change witchcraft belief?

Answer 33

Judges were not able to control social attitudes. The Jane Wenham cases show that they had to protect the falsely accused from mob rule.

Question 34

Why was it difficult for judges to impact social attitudes?

Answer 34

Even though judges had an impact on legal changes and the repealing of witchcraft law in 1736, they did not succeed in changing every attitude at every level of society over night.

Question 35

Was there still evidence of belief in witchcraft?

Answer 35

→ The long-term issue of belief in witchcraft among the illiterate classes remained, best evidenced by events in Hertfordshire in 1751 when John and Ruth Osborne were pursued and killed by a mob accusing them of witchcraft.

Question 36

How was rationality shown in relation to the mob hunt?

Answer 36

→ However, the fact that the ringleader of this mob, Thomas Colley, was convicted of murder shows that Judges did play a big role in bringing reason and rationality to legal proceedings.

Question 37

What was the impact of Galileo on the Church?

Answer 37

He rejected the right of the Church to act as an authority over scientific matters.

Question 38

What discoveries did Galileo make?

Answer 38

He made several important discoveries through observations (moons of Jupiter, new starts).

Question 39

How was Galileo more influential?

Answer 39

He supported the Copernicus model, but his work was in Italian, not Latin, and so was more readable and accessible to people.

Question 40

How was Galileo important for later scientists?

Answer 40

Developed a system that fused together mathematics and natural philosophy, which would inspire later scientists.

Question 41

How did Newton push forward with science and reason?

Answer 41

His work represented the final stage in a long process of theory and discovery that had been evolving for over 100 years. Principia Mathematica represented an important break from the mindset of the Middle Ages.

Question 42

How was Newton influential and able to spread his ideas?

Answer 42

His work was written in Italian and other writers like Voltaire published simpler versions of his work to try to promote science and mathematics among a wider pool of people.

Question 43

How did Newton represent a change in ideas?

Answer 43

Newton completed the mathematisation of natural philosophy because unlike earlier thinkers he succeeded in making all his calculations work.

Question 44

How were Newton’s ideas limited?

Answer 44

Newton, like Kepler before him, still believed in arcane knowledge and the power of magic. In early drafts of Principia Mathematica, he speculated that gravity may be the result of some magic force.

Question 45

What was a limit to his science and reason?

Answer 45

Newton had a belief in cosmic harmonies and seemed obsessed with the number 7 as some sort of centrepiece to the universe. He would highlight this even in presentations to the Royal Society, which had been set up to promote science and reason!

Question 46

What beliefs did Newton hold which contradicted his ideas?

Answer 46

He was an alchemist, meaning he believed different particles could be attracted to each other across empty space and his confidence in the power of light and gravity stemmed from a genuine belief that supernatural forces or the occult were responsible.